Sectarianism in Islam

Sectarianism in Islam refers to the division of the Muslim community (Ummah) into various sects and schools of thought, each with distinct theological, jurisprudential, and sometimes political orientations. The phenomenon has its origins in the early history of Islam, following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and has been shaped by a complex interplay of theological disputes, historical grievances, political rivalries, and external interventions. Contemporary scholarship distinguishes between legitimate scholarly disagreement (ikhtilāf) and harmful sectarianism (tafīrqu) or ta'ifiyya, which is characterized by entrenched hostility, mutual exclusion, and the weaponization of differences .

Islamic sacred texts, including the Qur'an and Hadith, contain strong condemnations of division and emphasize the importance of unity and brotherhood among believers. The Qur'anic verse "And hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided" (Qur'an 3:103) is frequently cited as a foundational mandate for Muslim solidarity . Despite these injunctions, sectarian identities have become deeply embedded in many Muslim societies, with significant political, social, and economic consequences. Modern efforts to address sectarianism focus on fostering inter-sectarian dialogue, promoting mutual understanding, and returning to shared Islamic principles of justice ('adl), consultation (shūrā), and brotherhood (ukhuwwah) .

Historical Roots

The primary historical division in Islam—between Sunnis and Shi'as—originated from a political dispute over the succession to Muhammad . Following the Prophet's death in 632 CE, the Muslim community was divided on whether his successor (khalīfa) should be chosen through consultation (which resulted in the election of Abu Bakr) or through hereditary designation, as advocated by those who supported 'Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. This initial political disagreement eventually crystallized into enduring theological and legal differences .

Over the centuries, additional sects and schools emerged, including the Kharijites (and their surviving branch, the Ibāḍīs), the Mu'tazila, and the Murji'ah. Within Sunni Islam, four major schools of jurisprudence (madhāhib)—Ḥanafī, Mālikī, Shāfiʿī, and Ḥanbalī—developed, representing normative scholarly diversity rather than sectarian schism . Similarly, Shi'a Islam divided into several branches, most notably the Twelvers (Ithnāʿashariyyah), Ismāʿīlīs, and Zaydīs, primarily over differences concerning the line of Imams .

A key characteristic of these divisions is that they evolved from active disputes into what some scholars term "frozen schisms"—historical conflicts that, while no longer actively fought, persist as entrenched cultural and theological boundaries . This process, as Adam R. Gaiser notes, involved the construction and maintenance of communal identities through schools and sects over more than a millennium .

Qur'anic and Hadith Perspectives

Qur'anic Condemnation of Division

The Qur'an consistently warns against sectarianism. Verses such as Qur'an 2:213, 3:19, 42:14, and 45:17 emphasize that religious communities differed not from lack of knowledge, but from "transgression" and "jealous animosity" (baghyan baynahum) after clear proofs had come to them . This suggests that sectarian division is a moral failure rather than a legitimate expression of intellectual diversity.

A well-known verse, Qur'an 3:103, commands Muslims to "hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided," reminding them of the unity and brotherhood they achieved through Islam after having been enemies . The term "rope of Allah" is interpreted by scholars as the guidance of the Qur'an and the prophetic tradition (Sunna) . Another verse, Qur'an 30:32, condemns those "who have divided their religion and become sects, every faction rejoicing in what it has."

Hadith on Schism

In Shia sources

The hadith concerning the division of the Muslim community into seventy-three sects, with only one attaining salvation, appears in Shīʿī sources as well, though its treatment and interpretation differ from the Sunni tradition.

Shīʿī hadith collections contain versions of this prophecy. The renowned Shīʿī scholar Muḥammad Bāqir al-Majlisī compiled a full chapter of traditions on this subject in his magnum opus, Biḥār al-Anwār (vol. 28, pp. 2–36), while Shaykh ʿAbbās al-Qummī also referenced such narrations in Safīnat al-Biḥār (vol. 2, pp. 359–360) .

However, academic scholarship has observed that Shīʿī scholars have not devoted the same level of attention to the "sects hadith" (ḥadīth al-firqa) as their Sunni counterparts. This relative disinterest may stem from concerns about the authenticity of certain narrations within Shīʿī books, or from the tendency of some Sunni commentators to use the hadith to label Shīʿīs as one of the seventy-two condemned sects .

Prominent modern Shīʿī scholars such as ʿAllāmah Ṭabāṭabāʾī and Jaʿfar Subḥānī have ingeniously reinterpreted the hadith to their own advantage. Rather than defining the saved sect as "that which follows the Prophet and his Companions" (mā anā ʿalayhi wa aṣḥābī), they have projected the criterion of salvation as following the Ahl al-Bayt (the Prophet's household), a move that contemporary Shīʿī scholars commonly adopt when confronted with this tradition . This interpretive approach aligns with the Shīʿī emphasis on the necessity of the Imām, the infallibility of the Imams, and their being muḥaddath (spoken to by angels) .

In Shīʿī heresiographical literature, Abū Ḥātim al-Rāzī, a prominent Ismāʿīlī scholar, identified the saved sect as "Ahl al-sunna wa-l-Jamāʿa" but defined this term to mean "those who have embraced the Sunna of the Prophet, who have abandoned the innovators and their innovations, and who are with a congregation gathered around an Imām who is a connector and a guide through the righteous path" . For Zaydī scholars such as Ibn al-Murtaḍā, the saved sect was identified as the Zaydī community . Thus, while Shīʿī sources preserve the seventy-three sects narrative, they consistently interpret the "saved sect" through the lens of allegiance to the divinely appointed leadership of the Prophet's family, reflecting a core theological commitment of Shīʿī Islam.

In Sunni sources

Several hadith narrations also address the issue of division. One widely cited tradition from Abu Hurayra states that the Jews split into seventy-one or seventy-two sects, the Christians into a similar number, and that the Muslim community would split into seventy-three sects, with only one being saved (often interpreted as the "community of the Sunna and the majority") . Another hadith likens the community of believers to a single body, where the suffering of one part affects the whole . Scholars caution, however, that these hadiths are employed in an ideal-typical fashion and are not to be treated as precise historical documents .

The Concept of Disagreement and Transgression

In analyzing Qur'anic teachings, scholar Ovamir Anjum distinguishes between natural disagreement (ikhtilāf) and schism (iftirāq). Disagreement becomes schism only when it is accompanied by mutual transgression (baghy), leading to enmity, the breakdown of dialogue, and divine punishment. The Qur'an (49:9) provides a mechanism for resolution: if two groups of believers fight, others must make peace between them justly. Anjum defines sectarianism (ta'ifiyya) as the culture that emerges from and perpetuates a "frozen schism," where conflict becomes ingrained in communal identity .

Causes and Consequences

Causes of Sectarianism

Contemporary scholarship identifies multiple, intertwined causes of sectarianism. These include:

Theological and Jurisprudential Differences: Divergent interpretations of core doctrines and legal principles.

Political Rivalries: Competition for power and resources, both historically (e.g., the early caliphate disputes) and in the modern era (e.g., the rivalry between Saudi Arabia and Iran for regional influence) .

External Interventions: Colonial legacies and the interference of foreign powers have exacerbated internal divisions .

Identity and Security Concerns: Sectarian identities often consolidate in contexts of political insecurity, where groups adopt sectarian narratives to protect their identity and interests .

Educational Systems: Some scholars argue that sectarian-oriented education fosters a personality more attuned to sectarian loyalty than a shared religious identity, creating "psychological and mental baggage" that hinders unity .

Consequences of Sectarianism

Sectarianism has had profound consequences for the Muslim world:

Political Fragmentation: It has weakened the collective political influence of Muslim-majority nations and made them more susceptible to external interference .

Social Instability: Sectarian conflicts have fueled civil wars, destabilized states (e.g., Syria, Iraq, Yemen), and led to widespread violence and displacement .

Economic Weakness: Disunity has impeded economic cooperation, preventing Muslim countries from effectively utilizing their collective resources .

Intellectual Stagnation: In some cases, sectarian polemics have overshadowed deeper intellectual engagement with Islamic sources and the pursuit of truth . The focus on minor differences is seen as a deviation from the major objectives of Islam .

Remedies and Pathways to Unity

From an Islamic standpoint, remedies for sectarianism are grounded in a return to primary sources and the cultivation of shared ethical principles.

Promoting Qur'anic Principles of Unity: Emphasizing foundational teachings like wahda (unity), ukhuwwah (brotherhood), shūrā (consultation), and 'adl (justice) .

Inter-Sectarian Dialogue: Encouraging open, respectful dialogue that seeks common ground. The Qur'anic approach to resolving disputes is highlighted as a model: to argue in a way that is best (Qur'an 16:125) and to respond to evil with what is better (Qur'an 41:34) .

Focusing on Shared Foundations: Stressing shared beliefs (the testimony of faith, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage) and a common history over peripheral differences .

Educational Reform: Reforming educational curricula to foster an inclusive Islamic identity and to counter sectarian narratives .

Building Cooperative Frameworks: Establishing institutional and governmental frameworks for cooperation among Muslim-majority nations, particularly influential ones, to resolve differences politically and reduce proxy conflicts .

Intra-Communal Reform: Encouraging Muslim communities to manage differences with a higher degree of knowledge, wisdom, and institutional support . This involves a conscious effort to abandon hatred, prejudice, and "narrow-mindedness" .

Adherence to the Prophetic Model: Following the example of the the Prophet in approaching ambiguous doctrinal matters with humility and avoiding speculative disputes that lead to division .

According to some scholars, the goal is not complete doctrinal uniformity, which is impossible, but an "ordered unity" that tolerates and manages differences through intellectual, social, and political institutions. This form of unity fosters cohesion without requiring uniformity and encourages constant mutual learning and dialogue (ta'āruf) .

References

Bibliography

Gaiser, A. R. (2023). Sectarianism in Islam: The Umma Divided. Cambridge University Press.

Haruna, S. M. (2025). Sectarianism and Fragmentation in the Muslim World: A Qur'anic and Hadith Perspective on the Causes, Consequences, and Path to Unity. Dirasah International Journal of Islamic Studies, 3(1), 42–63.

Anjum, O. (2025). Confronting Sectarianism: A Qur'anic and Historical Perspective. American Journal of Islam and Society. (Pre-print).

Geaves, R. (2021). "Sectarianism in Sunnī Islam." In The Bloomsbury Handbook of Islamic Studies. Brill.