Draft:Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab

Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab
name	Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab
Personal details
religion	Islam

Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab (756 CE, Kairouan – 812 CE, Sicily) was an Abbasid military commander and the first Aghlabid emir, as well as the founder of the dynasty. Originally from Khorasan, he was born in Kairouan, Tunisia. The Abbasids granted high ranks to many Khorasanians due to their support originating from Khorasan. After suppressing a rebellion in 799, Ibn al-Aghlab was appointed governor of Ifriqiya. He was regarded as knowledgeable, benevolent, and steadfast.

Before the reign

Ibrāhīm ibn al-Aghlab, Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn al-Aghlab ibn Sālim ibn ʿUqāl al-Tamīmī , was the founder of the Aghlabid dynasty, the first family to establish a state in North Africa. He was born in 852 CE/237 AH in Kairouan, in present-day Tunisia.

Ibrāhīm apparently lived in Ifrīqiya until the age of ten, when his father, al-Aghlab ibn Sālim, the governor of Ifrīqiya, was killed in battle against one of the rebels .

Afterward, he went to Egypt. At that time, certain members of the "Āl Muhallab" family, who had been major rivals of al-Aghlab since the era of Abū Muslim al-Khurāsānī, had taken control of the governorship of that region.

In Egypt, before attempting to claim his father's political and military legacy, Ibrāhīm devoted himself to acquiring knowledge, particularly fiqh, and became one of the distinguished students of "Layth ibn Saʿd al-Faqīh" . So highly was he regarded that Layth gifted him a concubine, from whom "Ziyādat Allāh ibn Ibrāhīm" was later born.

It is unclear when Ibrāhīm joined the Egyptian military district ("jund"), but al-Balādhurī, quoting "Aḥmad ibn Nāqid, mawlā of Banū al-Aghlab," refers to Ibrāhīm as one of the prominent figures in the Egyptian army who participated in one of the upheavals of that period.

He, along with several companions, stormed the public treasury (bayt al-māl); after taking only an amount equivalent to his stipend (possibly arrears owed to him), he fled to "Zāb Qayrawān." It is said that he subsequently gained dominance over the army of that region.

Contradictions regarding the date of this event in the sources have made determining its exact chronology difficult. Al-Balādhurī, in one passage, associates Ibrāhīm's arrival in Zāb with the governorship of Harthama ibn Aʿyan over the Maghreb (179 AH) ; however, this seems unlikely, because, firstly, it is reported that when Harthama was sent by Hārūn al-Rashīd to suppress rebellious governors in the Maghreb, Ibrāhīm was already in Zāb and sent numerous gifts to the caliph's representative to secure official recognition of his rule. Moreover, al-Balādhurī elsewhere and, following him, al-Ṭabarī mention Ibrāhīm's active involvement in the murder of Idrīs ibn ʿAbd Allāh (175 AH/791 CE).

On the other hand, Ibn al-Abbār maintains that Ibrāhīm went to Zāb during the governorship of "Faḍl ibn Rawḥ ibn Ḥātim al-Muhallabī" over Ifrīqiya. It is possible that Ibn al-Abbār intended Faḍl ibn Rawḥ's governorship over Zāb, where he held authority appointed by his father.

Considering that Ibrāhīm participated in the killing of "Idrīs" in 175 AH, it is highly probable that around the time of Faḍl's departure from Zāb, Ibrāhīm arrived in Zāb in 174 AH intending to go to Baghdad and had acquired sufficient power to receive implicit approval from the caliphal administration, since in the incident of Idrīs's murder he is referred to as Hārūn's agent in the region who prepared the grounds for Idrīs's assassination on the caliph's orders.

Although it is said that Ibn al-Aghlab's emergence in the events of Ifrīqiya began with his service in the army of Banū Muhallab, and despite Faḍl's ill omen toward Ibrāhīm, he nevertheless participated there in the campaign of "ʿAlāʾ ibn Saʿīd" to suppress "Ibn Jārūd," who had rebelled against "Faḍl al-Muhallabī" , it appears that he only entered the political and military scene seriously and officially after the arrival of "Harthama" in Ifrīqiya.

During that period, due to continuous unrest in the Maghreb, which had become a center for anti-Abbasid activities by the Kharijites, as well as the efforts of Arabs such as the descendants of "ʿUbayda ibn ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ", "Tamīm ibn Tamīm", and "Sulaymān ibn Ḥamīd al-Ghāfiqī", and many others whose ancestors had settled in that region during the initial Muslim conquest of the Maghreb and naturally considered themselves more deserving of governance than governors appointed by the caliph in Baghdad, and also due to the expanding influence of the Idrisids in the Maghreb, who sought to establish an Alid state, this important region was on the verge of slipping out of the political control of Baghdad. Governors successively dispatched by the Abbasid caliphs to establish caliphal authority in that land not only achieved little success but also faced major revolts, which sometimes resulted in their own deaths. Thus, "Faḍl ibn Rawḥ ibn Ḥātim, the Muhallabid governor" of Ifrīqiya, lost his life defending his rule, and Hārūn al-Rashīd immediately dispatched "Harthama ibn Aʿyan" to quell the rebellion in the Maghreb (179 AH/795 CE).

Harthama remained in that region for two and a half years and in 181 AH requested permission from Hārūn to resign. Hārūn then appointed his foster brother, "Muḥammad ibn Muqātil al-ʿAkī", as governor of Ifrīqiya.

Ibn Muqātil engaged in oppression within his domain, which provoked widespread discontent and revolt in Ifrīqiya. Apparently, during this same period, "Rāshid, mawlā of Idrīs" and guardian of "Idrīs ibn Idrīs", whose influence was growing, sought to seize control of Ifrīqiya. Ibrāhīm ibn al-Aghlab, who had previously demonstrated his hostility toward the Idrisids, this time resorted to deception; by misleading Rāshid's companions, he induced them to murder him.

Although Ibn Muqātil claimed credit for this deed before the Caliph, the head of the postal intelligence bureau (dīwān al-barīd) of the Maghreb informed the Caliph of the true circumstances. In 183 AH/799 CE, "Tamīm ibn Tamīm", governor of Tunisia from the family of "Malik ibn Zayd Manāt", who were considered cousins of the Aghlabids , rebelled against "Ibn Muqātil"; after defeating him, he seized Kairouan.

Meanwhile, Ibrāhīm, as one of the influential leaders of the region, especially relying on the reputation of his father, who had governed Ifrīqiya for some time, could have exploited this instability. However, being uncertain of the durability of any potential success, he chose to support "Ibn Muqātil" both to demonstrate his strength to the rebels and prevent developments that might threaten his own rule, and to gain the favor of the Caliph, who still supported "Ibn Muqātil", thereby laying the groundwork for obtaining caliphal legitimacy for the government he envisioned.

Indeed, it is not unlikely that through this support he aimed to intensify popular discontent with "Ibn Muqātil" and direct public opinion toward himself. Consequently, Ibrāhīm immediately marched on Kairouan. "Tamīm", seeing no capacity for resistance, withdrew, and Ibrāhīm entered the city.

In a sermon delivered at the city's main mosque, he called for the return of Ibn Muqātil and the continuation of his governorship. However, the people expressed their dissatisfaction, and many fled to join "Tamīm".

"Tamīm" once again attempted to seize Kairouan and, seeking to create discord between Ibn Muqātil and Ibrāhīm, wrote a letter to Ibn Muqātil accusing Ibrāhīm of aspiring to seize the governorship of Ifrīqiya and using Ibn Muqātil as a means to that end. Nevertheless, Ibn Muqātil paid no heed and dispatched Ibrāhīm to fight him.

Ibrāhīm defeated Tamīm and then, in 184 AH/800 CE, attacked Tunisia; ultimately, however, he granted Tamīm safe conduct and brought him to Kairouan.

Reign

The defeat of Tammam and the dominance of Ibn Muqatil further exacerbated public discontent, prompting people to urge Ibrahim, who had by then acquired significant influence and power, to inform the Caliph of the situation and to nominate himself as the governor of Ifriqiya. In addition to this action, Ibrahim proposed to the Caliph that instead of the 100,000 dinars annually sent from Egypt for the administration of Ifriqiya, no more than 40,000 dinars should be dispatched thereafter.

Harun al-Rashid, after consulting with "Harthama ibn A'yan," who described Ibrahim as a capable, wise, and pious man—and perhaps, according to "al-Istakhri," to counter the growing influence of the Idrisids —accepted this proposal favorably and appointed Ibrahim as governor of Ifriqiya in Muharram 184 AH/February 800 CE.

The Caliph subsequently wrote to Ibn Muqatil instructing him to hand over administrative control to Ibrahim. According to another account, the people of Ifriqiya expelled Ibn Muqatil and installed Ibrahim as their ruler. Thus, Ibrahim assumed control over Ifriqiya, while Ibn Muqatil departed for Tripoli.

There, through his scribe "Dawud al-Qayrawani," Ibrahim forged a letter purportedly from Harun al-Rashid. The letter stated that the Caliph had once again appointed him (Ibn Muqatil) as governor of Ifriqiya and ordered Ibrahim to return to Zab. Furthermore, in a separate letter, he requested "Sahl ibn Hajib al-Tamimi" to act as his deputy and assume administrative responsibilities. Consequently, in mid-Rabi' al-Awwal 184 AH/April 800 CE, Ibrahim left the city heading toward Zab. However, this news enraged Harun, who dispatched an envoy confirming Ibrahim's governorship over Ifriqiya.

As governor of Ifriqiya, Ibrahim sought to quell internal uprisings and extend caliphal authority within his domain by arresting numerous opponents and sending them to the Caliph.

Early in his rule, he constructed a township outside Kairouan, established his palace there, and named it "al-Abbasiyya." He employed many Sudanese slaves there as his private army. Nevertheless, his government was not immune to rebellions. In 186 AH/802 CE, "Hamdis ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Kindi" revolted against Ibrahim in Tunis.

Ibrahim dispatched his general "Imran ibn Mukhallad" or "Mujalid" to suppress the rebellion. "Ibn Mukhallad" defeated "Hamdis" and entered Tunis.

Around this time, fearing the growing power of "Idris ibn Idris," Ibrahim initially intended to confront him but, upon the advice of his associates, abandoned this plan. It is likely that the support of major Berber tribes such as the Awraba, Zanata, Zarawa, and Miknasa for "Idris" deterred Ibrahim from engaging him directly.

Consequently, Ibrahim resorted to stratagem, bribing "Bahluwl ibn Abd al-Wahid al-Madghari," a close associate and official of Idris, to defect and join him. This caused Idris's supporters to scatter.

Feeling severely threatened, Idris wrote to Ibrahim, reminding him of his kinship with the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), and requested either his submission or cessation of hostilities.

Thus, peace was established between Ibrahim and Idris. Thereafter, despite pressure from successive caliphs, the Aghlabids generally avoided direct confrontation with the Idrisids, opting instead for delay tactics. During this period, Tripoli remained one of the most turbulent regions within Ibrahim's domain. Numerous governors successively appointed to administer the region achieved little success in quelling the unrest, which apparently stemmed largely from longstanding disputes between the "Qaysi" and "Yamani" factions and the region's distance from the central government. In 188 or 189 AH/804 or 805 CE, the people of Tripoli expelled "Sufyan ibn al-Mada," who had been appointed governor for the fourth time, and installed "Ibrahim ibn Sufyan al-Tamimi" as their emir. However, disagreements soon arose among the local Arabs, leading to armed conflict.

Seizing the opportunity, Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab requested assistance from "Ahmad ibn Ismail," the governor of Egypt. With the army sent by him, the rebellion was eventually suppressed, although its leaders were pardoned.

The most significant rebellion against Ibrahim was led by his own general, "Imran ibn Mukhallad." In 194 or 195 AH/810 or 811 CE, due to his increasing power and influence, and provoked by Ibrahim's neglect, he found pretext to revolt. Alongside "Quraysh ibn Tunisi," he encamped between Kairouan and al-Abbasiyya.

Ibrahim took position in al-Abbasiyya but achieved little in several engagements, especially since some soldiers, demanding their overdue pay, joined Imran's forces.

This stalemate lasted approximately one year until the Caliph sent funds to Ibrahim, who distributed them among the enemy troops, thereby dispersing them from around Imran and regaining control over Kairouan. While Ibrahim was still dealing with the aftermath of this rebellion, unrest once again erupted in Tripoli.

He appointed his son Abdullah as emir there (196 AH), but the army of Tripoli besieged him in his residence and forced him to leave the city. Abdullah exited Tripoli, gathered supporters by distributing money, defeated the rebels, and regained control of the city. However, his tenure was short-lived, as his father dismissed him and reappointed "Sufyan ibn al-Mada" as governor.

This time, the Berbers revolted, defeated the state army, and destroyed the city walls. Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab again dispatched his son Abdullah to Tripoli with an army, apparently upon the recommendation and encouragement of "Abu Sulayman Dawud al-Katib," who had joined Ibrahim after Ibn Muqatil.

Abdullah defeated the Berbers and entered the city. Meanwhile, "Abd al-Wahhab ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Rustam" rallied Berber forces to oppose the Aghlabids and laid siege to Tripoli. Abdullah ibn Ibrahim moved to confront him, but shortly thereafter, in 812 CE, Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab died in Sicily, prompting Abdullah to agree to peace.

Ibrahim's body was returned to Kairouan.

Culture and Civilization

Some historians have praised Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab for his knowledge, poetry, handsome appearance, and bravery. It has been said that until his time, Ifriqiya had never had an emir who was more just, more statesmanlike, or more compassionate than Ibrahim. The people of the Maghreb held him in high esteem.

Nevertheless, it is remarkable that it has also been reported that during the revolt of Ibn Makhlad, the inhabitants of Kairouan and many other cities in Ifriqiya rose in opposition to Ibrahim.

This may not be unrelated to signs of violence observed in the events of his life; for instance, when the people of Tunis revolted against him, he ordered Ibn Makhlad to spare no one, and it is said that he subsequently put 10,000 rebels to the sword. Such acts of violence were likely rooted primarily in his distrust of the loyalty of the Maghrebi people, particularly the local troops, who occasionally rose in opposition to governors appointed by Baghdad.

This distrust, which later intensified, led Ibrahim to recruit 4,000 Sudanese Zanj guards into his army, entrust his personal security to them, and settle them in Abbasiya.

Furthermore, during his reign, Ibrahim favored the Arabs of Ifriqiya over the Berbers, who had gradually become a permanent and serious threat to the authority of the Abbasid governors. He granted the Arabs numerous privileges, including land grants (iqta') and financial endowments.

Although Ibrahim ruled in a semi-independent manner, during his governance he had the khutbah (Friday sermon) recited in the name of the Caliph of Baghdad. On coins, in addition to the name of the Caliph, he also struck his own name and that of the mint master. He sent annual tribute to Baghdad; indeed, the Qadi of Kairouan, "Abu Abd al-Rahman Abdullah ibn Umar ibn Ghanim ibn Shurahbil" (190 AH/806 CE), a companion and student of "Malik ibn Anas," had been appointed by the order of Harun al-Rashid.

During his rule, Ibrahim established numerous mosques, schools, and administrative departments (divans). Civilization in Ifriqiya flourished under him, and sciences and literature thrived.

Apparently, after the founding of Abbasiya, acting as an independent emir, he received the envoy of Charlemagne, King of France, with great splendor and granted his request to return the remains of a Christian saint named Saint Cyprian, which were located in Ifriqiya.

Some poems have also been attributed to Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab.

Among the works of Ibn al-Aghlab are the city of Raqqada and the Palace of Fath. He held governorship for 28 years and six months.

Sources

• Ibn Abbar, Muhammad ibn Abdullah, I'tab al-Kitab, edited by Salih al-Ashatar, Damascus, 1961 CE;
• Ibid., al-Hulla al-Siyara, edited by Hussein Munis, Cairo, 1963 CE;
• Ibn al-Athir, Ali ibn Muhammad, al-Kamil, Beirut, 1402 AH;
• Ibn Taghri Birdi, Yusuf, al-Nujum al-Zahira, Cairo, 1348–1358 AH;
• Ibn Khaldun, al-Ibar; Ibn Dawadari, Abdullah ibn Aybak, Kanz al-Durar, edited by Salah al-Din Munajjid, Cairo, 1961 CE;
• Ibn Amir, Ahmad, Tunis through History, Tunis, 1373 AH;
• Ibn Idhari al-Marrakushi, Muhammad, al-Bayan al-Maghrib, edited by Reinhart Dozy, Leiden, 1848–1851 CE;
• Ibn Iyad, Ibad ibn Musa, Tartib al-Madarik wa Taqrib al-Masalik, Beirut, 1967 CE;
• al-Istakhri, Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, Masalik wa Mamalik, edited by Iraj Afshar, Tehran, 1347 SH;
• Brockelmann, Carl, History of Islamic States and Nations, translated by Hadi Jazayeri, Tehran, 1347 SH;
• al-Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya, Ansab al-Ashraf, edited by Muhammad Baqir al-Behbudi, Beirut, 1977 CE;
• Ibid., Futuh al-Buldan, edited by M. J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1863 CE;
• Khalifa ibn Khayyat, Tarikh, edited by Suhayl Zakkar, Damascus, 1968 CE;
• al-Dhahabi, Shams al-Din Muhammad, Siyar A'lam al-Nubala, edited by Shu'ayb al-Arna'ut, Beirut, 1401 AH/1981 CE;
• al-Safadi, Khalil ibn Aybak, al-Wafi bi-l-Wafayat, edited by S. Dedering, Wiesbaden, 1970 CE;
• al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir, Tarikh, edited by Muhammad Abu al-Fadl Ibrahim, Beirut, 1960–1968 CE;
• Abd al-Razzaq, Mahmud Ismail, al-Aghaliba, Egypt, 1972 CE; Abd al-Wahhab, Hasan Husni, Waraqat an al-Hadara al-Arabiya bi-Ifriqiya, Tunis, 1972 CE;
• al-Uyun wa-l-Hada'iq, edited by M. J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1869 CE;
• al-Maliki, Abdullah ibn Muhammad, Riyad al-Nufus, Cairo, 1951 CE;
• Madani, Ahmad Tawfiq, al-Muslimun fi Jazirat Siqilliya wa Janub Italia, Algiers, 1365 AH;
• al-Nasiri, Ahmad ibn Khalid, al-Istiqsa, edited by Ja'far al-Nasiri and Muhammad al-Nasiri, Casablanca, 1954 CE;
• al-Ya'qubi, Ahmad ibn Abi Ya'qub, Tarikh, Beirut, Dar Sader.