Draft:Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri

Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri
Name	Emir Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri
Personal Details
Birth Place	Algeria
Brith Date	1807 CE
Death Place	Damascus
Death Date	1883 CE
Religion	Islam

Emir Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri is considered a prominent figure of the Islamic movement in Algeria and the Islamic Maghreb in the 19th century during the era of French colonialism. He was a Quran teacher and Sheikh of the Qadiriyya tariqa, with a Sufi background and upbringing. He united the tribes of Algeria for jihad against French colonialism and launched an armed uprising; such that in 1837 CE, France was forced during a treaty to hand over the rest of Algeria to him except for the coastal strip.

This successful presence of Sufis at the head of the Islamic movement of Algeria is considered a turning point in the history of the Islamic movement in the Maghreb region; although this treaty did not last, and a exhausting and long war took place for 15 years, and ultimately France, with the cooperation of its puppets in Morocco, managed to defeat Abd al-Qadir and after arrest, exile him. Although his jihadist movement was continued by other sheikhs of Sufism and thousands of disciples residing in zawiyas and ribats.

Many great Sufis from the early centuries have always participated in preserving the borders of the Islamic lands against enemy attacks. In the Timurid and Safavid periods, Sufis in the position of the most important power against social injustice, abandoned seclusion and solitude and directly intervened in political affairs. In recent centuries when European colonialists attacked to occupy the Islamic countries especially the lands of North Africa, many of the resistance leaders against them were ascetics and Sufi sheikhs.

The country of Algeria was under the ruthless domination of the French for nearly a century and a half (1830-1962). Among the Algerian fighters, Emir Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri was a prominent poet, mystic, warrior, and politician whose chivalry and gallantry were praised even by his enemies. Abd al-Qadir was the first mystic poet of Algerian resistance in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. One of the important aspects of Abd al-Qadir's mysticism is rising by the sword against oppression and tyranny. In other words, the mysticism of Emir Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri was a militant and revolutionary mysticism.

General Introduction

He was born in 1222 AH / 1807 CE in Sahel Agris, in a place known as Qutna (Qaytana) Wadi al-Hammam, subordinate to the state of "Oran" in western Algeria in a religious family.

He learned the Quran and Quranic sciences from his father Muhyi al-Din al-Jaza'iri, who was a pious Jurist and mujahid and the head of the Akhwat sect of Qadiriyya in the western part of Algeria, and became a memorizer of the Quran. Then he proceeded to learn new sciences including astronomy, mathematics, and geography, under the supervision of Sayyid Ahmad ibn Tahir (Qadi of Arzew), and also learned military arts and became superior to his peers and aroused the admiration of everyone.

In Rabi' al-Thani 1241 AH / November 1825 CE, he traveled with his father to visit the Haramain Sharifain in Hejaz and then to Baghdad and again to Mecca and Medina and returned to his homeland in 1243 AH / early 1828 CE. After this journey, he found a great desire to study and established a library which was one of the most valuable libraries at that time, and engaged in extensive study of old and new knowledge.

French Invasion

In Muharram 1246 AH / June 1830 CE, French colonialist forces landed on Algerian soil and about a month later (July), the city of Algiers (capital) was occupied by the French. Immediately the Governor of Algeria declared jihad against the invaders and fought them but was defeated and forced to agree to peace.

Sayyid Muhyi al-Din (Abd al-Qadir's father) in Dhu al-Hijjah 1247 AH / April 1832 CE as the leader of the jihad coalition of powerful tribes of northeastern Algeria, fought to expel the French from the Oran region. Abd al-Qadir also from the very beginning of the entry of French occupiers into this land in 1246 AH / 1830 CE declared jihad against the French occupiers and rose to fight them along with his father and until the end of his life did not sit idle in this struggle. In Rajab, Sha'ban 1248 AH / November or December 1832 CE, a group of elders of the Arab tribes of northern regions of Algeria, gave him the title "Sultan of the Arabs" and chose him as their leader.

Signing the Treaty with France

Emir Abd al-Qadir, during his continuous struggle with the French, also concluded treaties with them. In the text of his treaty of 13 Shawwal 1249 AH / 24 February 1834 CE with French General Desmichels, he was titled "Commander of the Faithful" and in the same year the French recognized him as the Bey of Mascara, in northwestern Algeria.

According to the aforementioned contract, except for the coastal cities of Algeria which remained under French occupation, the territorial integrity of this country, as an independent Arab country under the leadership of Emir Abd al-Qadir was recognized. He who used Islamic taxes, such as khums and zakat to provide costs for maintaining his forces, in this period minted coins called "Muhammadiya" and established military establishments including arms manufacturing factories.

Accusation of Infidelity

While the Emir explicitly considered the occupying French as 'Harbi Infidels' and recognized only two paths for the Muslims of Algeria in confronting them: 'victory' or 'martyrdom', a group of tribal elders of this land, and even some of his close associates (such as Hajj Musa, one of the tribal chiefs), who had not grasped the concept and political content of the Emir's treaty with the French, accused him of infidelity and heresy due to signing a contract with infidels, and separated from him.

Defeat of the French

Following the 1834 treaty and during the years 1251–1253 AH / 1835–1837 CE, wars broke out again between Emir Abdelkader and the French, which repeatedly resulted in the defeat of the French. In 1251 AH / 1835 CE, a heavy battle took place between the French Marshal Clauzel and Emir Abdelkader. The French first attacked the cities of Mascara and Tlemcen, which were under Abdelkader's rule, but were defeated and retreated.

In Jumada al-Akhir / October of the same year, Abdelkader's troops besieged the French camp in Rachgoun and inflicted heavy blows on the French forces. This defeat rang alarm bells in Paris, and politicians and the press, through extensive propaganda, provoked the government to send sufficient forces to confront Abdelkader.

The French government was compelled to send a large force under the command of General Bugeaud to confront Abdelkader, which resulted in a French victory (21 Rabi' al-Awwal 1252 AH / 6 July 1836 CE), but the French, lacking confidence in the continuity of their victory and also in the face of the Emir Abdelkader's lightning and surprise attacks, signed a peace treaty with him on 23 Safar 1253 AH / 30 May 1837 CE in Tafna (Tafna), according to which, [the interior] was ceded [to him] and coastal cities remained in French possession, and the French adopted a policy of gradual occupation.

Reconstruction

Emir Abdelkader used this opportunity to organize his affairs and formed a professional and trained army, and instead of relying on tribal forces that were only mobilized during war, he relied on this army. Moreover, by obtaining regular income sources through the collection of Islamic taxes (ushr and zakat and also a specific tax for wartime, 'Ma'un'), he funded his expenses and proceeded to build the city of Tagdempt, and undertook the extraction of mines and the development of industries, trade, and agriculture, and established many schools even in small neighborhoods.

To collect these taxes and establish justice based on Sharia, he appointed specific salaried officials named 'Khalifa' or 'Agha' in different regions of the country, and strove to overcome hereditary differences existing among tribes by utilizing Islam as a unifying force.

During his rule, Abdelkader tried to behave according to Islamic rulings and taught authentic Islam; he emphasized monotheism and was strongly opposed to shirk (polytheism). He condemned innovations and especially the worship of religious personalities and considered the war against France a legitimate jihad. He was very interested in compiling Sharia rules and for this reason, wrote about matters related to his military and administrative activities. Whenever he had doubts about the Sharia permissibility of an action, he would consult with famous jurists of Islamic countries and seek their fatwa on the matter. The economic and political problems that Emir Abdelkader faced are reflected in the documents and manuscripts remaining from him.

Maintaining Unity and Government Coordination

His most important issue was maintaining the unity and coordination of the government. Key forces that played a major role in concentrating the core nuclei of the movement and separating from the dependencies of the Makhzen tribes and Sufi orders, betrayed him, collaborating with the enemy either individually or in groups. Rival tribes also collaborated with the French, while some condemned him for signing a treaty with the enemy.

His second problem was the tribes' unwillingness to pay Islamic taxes, and the only way to deal with these problems was the use of force. In order to fulfill his religious duty in dealing revolutionarily and decisively with rebellious and insurgent tribes, Abdelkader sought a fatwa from Sheikh al-Islam of Morocco, Abdelsalam Shouli, in 1253 AH / 1837 CE:

"Given the dire situation of the Muslims of Algeria, a country where unbelievers shed the blood of Muslims, and the enemies of the religion (French occupiers) intend to enslave Muslims by the sword or by deceit, some Muslims collaborate with them, providing livestock, herds, horses, and mounts, and sometimes informing the enemy of Muslim defensive weaknesses.

There are also tribes that undertake such actions, and when asked to condemn the guilty and traitorous individual, they explode with anger and resort to denial and falsehood, while knowing well who the traitor is and who has committed these acts.

What is God's command regarding the life and property of these two groups? Regarding those who refrain from participating in defense when the Imam or his representative announces a general mobilization to defend the religion and country, should they be punished, and if so, what is their punishment? And since punishment is not without war, can their wealth and properties be confiscated? What is God's command regarding those who refuse to pay their Zakat entirely or partially? They claim their wealth does not reach the minimum required threshold, while undoubtedly, their wealth exceeds the necessary limit. Despite the weakness of Islam in these days, can their claim be accepted? Or is there room for Ijtihad? From where should the expenses of the Islamic army, responsible for defending the country and protecting borders against sudden enemy attacks, be supplied? Currently, there is no regular treasury, and the amount obtained from Zakat does not suffice for their food, let alone covering the costs of clothing, weapons, horses, and other military equipment. Can one remain indifferent until the enemy dominates the entire Islamic country? Or must the people and the Muslim community supply all the needs of the army? If supplying army expenses is an obligation, are all people obliged or only the wealthy? Are those who refrain from paying wartime taxes considered rebels? What is God's view and ruling regarding these rebels? Can their wealth be returned to them after the war ends or not?"

In response to Emir Abdelkader's request for a fatwa, the Mufti of Morocco, Shouli, wrote a substantial article and answered all the issues and problems that Abdelkader had mentioned, and went beyond this to address peripheral issues, such as the permissibility of concluding a treaty with the enemy and obliging Muslims residing in areas under enemy occupation to migrate to Islamic regions.

The Issue of Migration

The issue of migration was of particular importance to Abdelkader for military reasons, as the collective migration of Muslims from areas under French influence to areas under his control would strengthen Abdelkader's position. Therefore, in the same year, he requested a fatwa from the scholars of Egypt regarding this matter. It appears that the scholars of Algeria at that time differed regarding the obligation of migration, as scholars residing in areas under France's influence did not consider migration obligatory, whereas scholars supporting Abdelkader considered migration from occupied areas obligatory.

The first group were undoubtedly Hanafis, whom the Ottoman rulers followed. They considered migration obligatory and necessary only in critical conditions and when Islam was endangered. Abdelkader explained the position of both groups in his letter and asked:

"What is your opinion regarding an Islamic region that has been invaded and occupied by the unbeliever enemy? The enemy has not yet reached some of the aforementioned mountainous regions and has not overcome the people there. The people of these regions are defending their lands. Some residents of non-occupied areas have migrated, and the rest remain under the domination and slavery of the unbelievers. The unbelievers have imposed taxes on them, something like jizya.

Among the migrants and those who did not migrate, there are some scholars. The scholars who migrated to the mountainous regions with the rest of the Muslims believe that migration is obligatory and have issued a fatwa that the blood of those Muslims who did not migrate and accepted the rule of the unbelievers is permissible [to shed], and their women and children can be taken captive and their property seized as spoils. Their argument is that Muslims who remain among the unbelievers despite having the ability to migrate, aid the unbelievers in war against Muslims and plundering their property, and strive to consolidate their domination over Muslims.

Those scholars who remained in areas under the control of the unbelievers and did not migrate believe that migration is not obligatory and argue based on verse 28 of Surah Al-Imran: Template:Quran and the Prophetic hadith "There is no migration after the Conquest".

Regarding this, the Emir requested a fatwa from one of the muftis of Egypt.

The Egyptian scholar, Abu Abdullah Muhammad Alish (1802–1883), responded to Abdelkader's request. He issued a detailed fatwa and within it, quoted the fatwas of ancient scholars extensively. These fatwas referred to the retreat of Muslims from Sicily and Spain and showed that migration is obligatory. The issue of the obligation of migration occupied Emir Abdelkader's mind, as he wrote a treatise on this subject in 1843 CE (1259 AH) and severely attacked the opposing jurists:

"As we know, these ignoramuses issue fatwas without possessing the necessary knowledge and competence, and consequently, lead people into error and deviation. This hadith is about them: 'A time will come when the stench of such scholars will be worse than the stench of a rotten donkey carcass.' They argue for their claim based on the Prophetic hadith 'There is no migration after the Conquest'. This hadith is in Sahih al-Bukhari but cannot be sufficient evidence for them, because when the questioner asks whether one can still migrate from Mecca to Medina after the Conquest of Mecca, the Prophet (peace be upon him) says: Migration has ended, because Mecca has been conquered and that migration from the Dar al-Islam of Mecca is abrogated, just as the rule of non-return of the early migrants to Mecca was abrogated. But as long as the sun rises from the east, migration from Dar al-Kufr to Dar al-Islam remains in force and solid."

French Breach of Treaty

A few years after the Treaty of Tafna, the French breached the treaty and General Bugeaud attacked the city of Mascara, the seat of Emir Abdelkader's government. Due to the betrayals and duplicities of some tribal leaders and the discord and division among them, in his third battle with the French "unbelievers", in December 1840 CE (Dhu al-Qi'dah 1256 AH), he was defeated by General Bugeaud's forces. Although the holy jihad of his followers continued sporadically, the Emir himself was forced to retreat and sought refuge in Morocco in 1841 CE (1257 AH) along with a group of his followers.

In many of the Emir's wars and attacks, a group of Moroccan soldiers of Moulay Abd al-Rahman, Sultan of Morocco, accompanied him, and for this reason, the French accused Moulay Abd al-Rahman of aiding Emir Abdelkader and providing him with soldiers and weapons. Therefore, France, via an ultimatum, demanded the extradition of the Emir from Morocco, but Moulay Abd al-Rahman's refusal to extradite the Emir led to the attack of the Francen fleet on Tangier on 16 August 1844 CE (20 Rajab 1260 AH).

Flaring of Anti-French Sentiments

Following this, anti-French sentiments among the people of Morocco flared up, and the people and the Sultan openly rose to support the Emir and the Algerians. Moulay Abd al-Rahman sent an army composed of 30,000 warriors under the command of his son Moulay Muhammad to aid Emir Abd al-Qadir. When this army reached the region of Isly, from the provinces of Oujda, Emir Abd al-Qadir came to Moulay Muhammad and, given his experience and knowledge of the military strength and warfare techniques of the French forces, advised Moulay Muhammad to act with caution and not fall into the enemy's deception. Moulay Muhammad arrogantly and indifferently rejected this advice, and some of his commanders spoke harshly to the Emir, forcing Abd al-Qadir to separate from them and leave them to their own devices.

Confrontation with French Forces

A few days later, French forces rushed to confront the Moroccan army and in a short and fierce battle, severely defeated Moulay Muhammad's army on 28 Rajab 1260 AH / 14 August 1844 CE.

With the intervention of England in support of Moulay Abd al-Rahman on 27 Sha'ban 1260 AH / 10 September 1844 CE, the Treaty of Tangiers was concluded between France and Morocco, stipulating that the Sultan of Morocco would henceforth not support the Algerian revolutionaries and mujahideen, and would exile the Emir from Morocco or place him under surveillance and prevent any of his operations.

Emir Abd al-Qadir also accused the Sultan of Morocco of non-cooperation and refusal to aid the Algerian forces and sought to attract public opinion in Morocco towards himself and incite them against the Sultan of Morocco. The Sultan also openly confronted Emir Abd al-Qadir, putting him and his mujahideen under severe pressure, and proceeded to disarm them and confiscate their property. In 1263 AH / 1846 CE, the Emir, in a letter to the scholars of Egypt, while describing his services and the Sultan of Morocco's collusion with the French infidels and his mistreatment of himself and his mujahideen and the seizure of their property and weapons, sought their opinion regarding the Sultan.

Support of Sheikh Muhammad Alish

In response to the Emir Abd al-Qadir's request for a fatwa, Sheikh Muhammad Alish, the Mufti of the Maliki Egypt, in a fatwa he issued, declared his full support for the Emir's actions, declared obedience to him necessary and jihad against the French as an individual obligation, and deemed any transaction with them forbidden, and forbade the Sultan of Morocco from mistreating the Emir.

In another letter to Abdelhadi Hassani, the Chief Judge of the city of Fez, Morocco, the Emir asked him about Muslims who befriend and cooperate with the enemy (the French) and the duties of Muslim sultans towards the mujahideen.

Hassani's response to Abd al-Qadir was not entirely satisfactory; regarding what referred to the Sultan of Morocco, he merely contented himself with quoting various fatwas of Maliki jurists, but emphasized the existence of defensive jihad against the enemy.

Confrontation by Moulay Abd al-Rahman

Instigated by France, Moulay Abd al-Rahman sought to suppress and arrest Emir Abd al-Qadir; therefore, Moulay Muhammad went to war against Emir Abd al-Qadir with a large and vast army, which resulted in Abd al-Qadir's defeat and the killing of many of his soldiers, and the Emir was forced to return to Algeria along with his other comrades.

During the Emir's stay in Morocco, some of the leaders of the mujahideen, such as "Muhammad Belhadj" in the region of Jeriah and Aurès, continued to resist the French colonizers, and "Boucharb" also rose in rebellion in the region of Biban. Upon entering Algeria, the Emir resumed fighting and severely defeated the French forces at Sidi Ibrahim, but with the continuous reinforcement of French forces and the lack of cooperation and even betrayal by some tribal leaders, his forces dwindled, and the French also took the Emir's family captive. He was forced to surrender to the French forces on the condition of good treatment on 15 Muharram 1264 AH / 23 December 1847 CE, but despite the promise they had given, the French exiled him to the port of Toulon in France, where he spent about five years.

Arrest of Emir Abd al-Qadir

With the arrest of Emir Abd al-Qadir, the anti-colonial movement of Algeria was also suppressed and began to decline, and the foundations of French colonization in that country were strengthened. The French government, in order to reduce the hatred of the Algerian people and attract their attention, and to continue its colonial rule, sought to release the Emir from exile.

Therefore, when Napoleon III, Emperor of France, was traveling around France, he went to Amiens where Emir Abd al-Qadir was imprisoned. The Emperor hastened to meet him and promised him freedom, and a few days later invited him to Paris.

Arrival of the Emir in Paris

Upon the Emir's arrival in Paris, he was received with great acclaim, and the people of Paris gathered in the streets, on rooftops, and at windows to watch the Emir, who had kept the French forces at bay for fifteen years. He was taken to Napoleon's palace, and Napoleon received him with great respect. He was gifted an Arabian horse and a sword inscribed with: "From Emir Napoleon III to Emir Abdelkader bin Muhyiddin," and an annual pension was also established for him.

In 1268 or 1269 AH / 1851 or 1852 AD, on the condition that he would not go to Algeria, he left France and went to Istanbul, and from there to the port of Bursa, but he was unable to reside there. Therefore, after some time, he left that place as well and departed via Beirut for Damascus. The people of the city, who had heard of his fame and heroism, all rushed to welcome him, brought him into the city with full splendour and respect, and settled him in the Amara neighbourhood.

Ethnic and Religious Conflicts

During the ethnic and religious conflicts that occurred in Lebanon and Syria in the 1860s and 1870s, the massacre of Christians in Damascus began on 11 Muharram 1277 AH / 9 July 1860. On that same day, the Emir summoned all Algerians residing in Damascus and dispersed them throughout the city neighbourhoods, ordering that anyone capable of saving Christians should act quickly. Two Muslim scholars named Mahmud Efendi Hamza and his brother Asad Efendi also rose to assist the Emir.

On the third day of the incident, rebel Kurds attacked the Emir's house to capture and kill Christians, but the Emir and his guards defended themselves, and eventually the Kurds returned disappointed. This incident lasted seven days, and during this time, the Emir did not neglect the care of Christian refugees for a moment, until a new governor entered Damascus from the Ottoman government and the former governor was dismissed, and the sedition and unrest subsided. In that year, Napoleon III awarded him the "Legion of Honour" medal in recognition of the Emir's humanitarian services during that incident.

Works

The book Mawaqif on Sufism is his most important work, and the book Dhikra al-Aqil as well as Al-Miqraz al-Hadd li-Qat' Lisan al-Ta'in Din al-Islam min Ahl al-Batil wa al-Ilhad are among his compositions. Multiple works and a diwan of poetry remain from the Emir.

Death

Emir Abdelkader died in 1301 AH / 1883 AD at the age of seventy-six in Damascus and was buried next to the shrine of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi.

Following Algeria's independence in 1345 SH / 1966 AD, to honour the status of this national hero, his remains were exhumed and brought to Algeria, and he was buried with formal ceremonies and rituals in the land for whose liberation from French colonizers he had fought for years.

See also

• Algeria
• France
• Qadiriyya
• Sufis

References

• A Look at the Life of Emir Abdelkader, Religious and Political Personality of Algeria irna.ir, Publication Date: 05/03/87 SH
• Encyclopaedia of the Islamic World - Islamic World Foundation ... lib.eshia.ir