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The Islamic world, also known as the Muslim world, consists of the global community of Muslims who adhere to the religion of Islam and live in societies where Islam is prevalent (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). This community is often referred to as the Ummah (Arabic: أمة), meaning "nation" or "community" (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). In a modern geopolitical sense, the term refers to countries where Islam is widespread, though there are no universally agreed criteria for inclusion (TheFreeDictionary.com, n.d.). The alternative term "Muslim-majority countries" is frequently used to describe nations where Muslims constitute more than 50% of the population (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026).

As of 2020, approximately 1.8 billion people, or more than 25% of the world's population, are Muslims (Pew Research Center, 2021). The combined GDP (PPP) of the 57 member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) was estimated at US$24 trillion in 2020, equivalent to about 18% of the world's GDP (OIC, 2021).

Terminology

The terms "Islamic world" and "Muslim world" have been documented as early as 1912 in discussions of Pan-Islamic movements (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). In modern usage, they refer to countries where Islam is prevalent, although scholars have criticised these terms as "simplistic" and "binary" because no state has a religiously homogeneous population (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). For example, approximately 10% of Egypt's citizens are Christians, and in absolute numbers, there are sometimes fewer Muslims living in Muslim-majority countries than in countries where they form a minority (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). Consequently, the term "Muslim-majority countries" is often preferred in academic literature (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026).

Some scholars also use the term "Islamicate" to refer to the social and cultural complex historically associated with Islam and Muslims, including the participation of non-Muslim individuals and groups within that complex (Hodgson, 1974, as cited in Waldman & Zeghal, 2026).

Demographics

Population distribution

Muslims predominate in approximately 30 to 40 countries, forming a belt that stretches from the Atlantic Ocean eastward across northern Africa into Central Asia and south to the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). By regional percentage:

Largest populations

The country with the largest Muslim population is Indonesia, where approximately 13% of the world's Muslims reside (Pew Research Center, 2021). South Asia is home to the largest regional Muslim population (31%), followed by the Middle East-North Africa (20%) and Sub-Saharan Africa (15%) (Pew Research Center, 2021). India has the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries, with over 200 million adherents (Pew Research Center, 2021). Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, and Egypt are home to the world's second, fourth, sixth, and seventh largest Muslim populations, respectively (Pew Research Center, 2021).

Denominations

Most Muslims belong to one of two major denominations: Sunni Islam (approximately 87–90% of Muslims) and Shia Islam (approximately 10–13%) (Pew Research Center, 2011). Other denominations exist in smaller pockets, such as Ibadi Islam, primarily in Oman (Pew Research Center, 2011). A significant number of Muslims identify as "just a Muslim" (non-denominational) rather than affiliating with a specific sect (Pew Research Center, 2011). Arabs account for fewer than one-fifth of all Muslims, with more than half of Muslims living east of Karachi, Pakistan (Pew Research Center, 2021).

History

Origins and early expansion

The history of the Islamic faith as a social institution begins around 610 CE, when the Islamic prophet Muhammad received the first revelations of the Quran in Mecca (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). Facing opposition, he and his followers migrated to Medina (then Yathrib) in 622 CE, an event known as the Hijrah, which marks the first year of the Islamic calendar (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026).

After Muhammad's death in 632 CE, his successors—the Rashidun Caliphs—continued to lead the Muslim community (Lapidus, 2014). The early Muslim conquests rapidly expanded Islamic rule beyond the Arabian Peninsula, reaching from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus Valley in the east (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). Within a century, Muslim conquerors surpassed the achievement of Alexander the Great, creating an empire that permanently linked western Asia with the Mediterranean (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). However, political unity was fractured by the First and Second Fitnas (civil wars), leading to the permanent division between Sunni and Shia Muslims following the assassination of Caliph Uthman in 656 CE (Lapidus, 2014).

Golden Age and regional empires

The Islamic Golden Age (roughly 8th to 14th centuries) witnessed significant advances in science, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and arts (Esposito, 2003). Major empires dominated by Muslims included the Abbasid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate, Seljuk Empire, Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent, Safavid Empire in Persia, and Ottoman Empire in Anatolia and the Balkans (Lapidus, 2014).

Colonial era and decolonisation

In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under European colonial domination (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). The abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate by the Turkish Parliament in 1924 marked a critical turning point, occurring when most Muslim-majority nations were under European colonial rule (İhsanoğlu, 2010). The post-World War II decolonisation process resulted in numerous independent Muslim-majority states, which adopted varying political and economic models, balancing secular and religious trends (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026).

Institutions of Islamic cooperation

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation

The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is the largest intergovernmental organization representing the Muslim world, second only to the United Nations in membership (OIC, 2025). Founded in 1969 in response to the arson attack on Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, the OIC has 57 member states across four continents (OIC, 2025). The organisation describes itself as the "collective voice of the Muslim world" and aims to safeguard the interests of Muslims worldwide (OIC, 2025).

The OIC's charter objectives include:

  • Enhancing fraternity and solidarity among member states (OIC, 2008)
  • Supporting the Palestinian people's right to self-determination (OIC, 2008)
  • Combating Islamophobia and defamation of Islam (İhsanoğlu, 2010)
  • Strengthening intra-Islamic economic cooperation toward an Islamic common market (OIC, 2025)
  • Cooperating in combating terrorism, organised crime, and corruption (OIC, 2025)

The OIC's headquarters are temporarily located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, pending the liberation of East Jerusalem, which is intended to become the permanent headquarters (OIC, 2008). Former Secretary-General Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu led a reform process in the 2000s, adopting a Ten-Year Programme of Action (2005–2015) to address challenges facing the Muslim Ummah (İhsanoğlu, 2010).

Other organisations

Other significant Islamic institutions include the Arab League (focused on Arab states), the Islamic Development Bank (established 1975), the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO), and the Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which has served as a forum for Muslim and non-Muslim oil-producing nations (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026).

Common themes and challenges

Political Islam

Approximately one-quarter of the world's population shares Islam as an ethical tradition, and many people in Muslim-majority countries view Islam as a political movement as well as a religion (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026). Political Islam (Islamism) is influential across the Muslim world, with Islamic parties holding power in countries such as Pakistan and Turkey, and having strong representation in others (Esposito, 2003). The relationships between these movements, their views on democracy, and their engagement with militant tactics remain complex and varied (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026).

The Palestinian cause

The Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the status of Jerusalem remain powerful symbols of Muslim solidarity (İhsanoğlu, 2010). The OIC was founded directly in response to the 1969 Al-Aqsa Mosque arson, and the organisation continues to prioritise support for Palestinian self-determination (OIC, 2025). Israel remains widely unpopular in the Muslim world due to the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 and subsequent conflicts (Waldman & Zeghal, 2026).

Islamophobia

The OIC has identified Islamophobia as a form of racism and xenophobia that poses a threat to global peace (İhsanoğlu, 2010). Major incidents, such as the Danish cartoons controversy (2005–2006) and the release of the Dutch film Fitna (2008), have prompted coordinated OIC responses (İhsanoğlu, 2010). The organisation has worked with international institutions to combat violent extremism while promoting dialogue among civilisations and religions (OIC, 2025).

Sectarianism

Sectarian tensions, particularly between Sunni and Shia Muslims, present ongoing challenges to Islamic unity (Lapidus, 2014). These divisions have been exacerbated by geopolitical rivalries, including the Saudi Arabia–Iran proxy conflict. However, initiatives such as the OIC's International Islamic Fiqh Academy and various rapprochement (taqrib) efforts have sought to foster mutual understanding and cooperation between different schools of thought (Esposito, 2003).

See also

References

Esposito, J. L. (2003). The Oxford dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press.

Hodgson, M. G. S. (1974). The venture of Islam: Conscience and history in a world civilization (Vols. 1–3). University of Chicago Press.

İhsanoğlu, E. (2010). The Islamic world in the new century: The Organisation of the Islamic Conference. Columbia University Press.

Lapidus, I. M. (2014). A history of Islamic societies (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. (2008). OIC Charter. https://www.oic-oci.org/page/?p_id=54&p_ref=26&lan=en

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. (2021). OIC annual economic report 2021. OIC General Secretariat.

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. (2025). Member states. Retrieved May 12, 2026, from https://www.oic-oci.org/states/

Pew Research Center. (2011). The future of the global Muslim population. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/

Pew Research Center. (2017). Europe’s growing Muslim population. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/11/29/europes-growing-muslim-population/

Pew Research Center. (2021). Muslim population growth by country. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/09/21/muslim-population-growth-by-country/

TheFreeDictionary.com. (n.d.). Muslim world. In Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 12, 2026, from https://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Muslim+world

Waldman, M. R., & Zeghal, M. (2026, March 13). Islamic world. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 12, 2026, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world

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