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Sayyid Hassan Modarres
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Sayyid Hassan Modarres (born 1249 SH - died 1316 SH) was one of the prominent mujtahids and political activists during the time of Reza Shah and held multiple positions in the government of the time; among these positions was his selection by the clerics of Najaf as one of the five top-ranking clerics to supervise the laws approved by the Assembly in 1288 SH and representation in the Assembly from the third to the sixth term of the National Assembly. He was subjected to assassination attempts multiple times throughout his life and was imprisoned; in 1307, Modarres was exiled to Khaf Fortress and from there to Kashmar, and finally reached Martyrdom in 1316.


Biography

Sayyid Hassan Modarres, of the Tabatabai Sayyids, is one of the most important scientific, religious, and political figures of Iran in the Constitutional era and the First Pahlavi era, who was born in 1287 AH in the village of Sarabeh Kachu, a dependency of Ardestan, Isfahan, in a destitute but religious, clerical, and agricultural family[1]. His father Ismail and his grandfather Mir Abedolbaghi were from the Mir Abedin tribe who had come from Zavareh to this region and settled there[2]. After a while, his father left this region due to problems arising with the locals, mostly living in Zavareh; but Sayyid Hassan stayed in Sarabeh with his mother, Khadijeh, until the age of six, until his father, due to the unsuitable environment of this region, while his mother did not agree to accompany them, took him with himself to Qomsheh (Shahreza) at the age of six (1264 SH)[3][4]. Modarres married twice. The result of the first marriage, which was in the sixth year of his studies in Isfahan, [5] was two sons (Ismail and Abedolbaghi) and two daughters[6] and one son from the second wife whom he married in Tehran (when Modarres was in residence, in 1334 SH first the son and then the mother passed away)[7].


Modarres Family

One of the tribes of which Modarres is considered the cream is the Mir Abedin tribe; this group of Sayyids resided in the summer village of "Sarabeh". Sayyid Ismail Tabatabai (father of Martyr Modarres), who was considered from this tribe and was engaged in religious propaganda and performing religious affairs of the people in the aforementioned village, decided to renew and strengthen the kinship bond through marriage in order not to cut off the connection of the Mir Abedin tribe with their Zavareh relatives, and revive the good tradition of maintaining kinship ties. For this reason, he married the daughter of Sayyid Kazem Salar, whose name was Khadijeh and was from the Tabatabai Sayyids of Zavareh. The fruit of this blessed union was a child who sprang up like a pure spring in the Zavareh desert in 1278 AH. His father named him Hassan. His father was mostly engaged in religious and jurisprudential affairs of the people in "Sarabeh", but the mother and child lived in Zavareh with their relatives until an incident[8]. caused the father to take his child, who had passed six springs, to Qomsheh to his grandfather Mir Abedolbaghi in 1293 and choose the Fazlabad neighborhood of this city as his place of residence. This was while Mir Abedolbaghi had previously migrated from Zavareh to Qomsheh and was engaged in scientific and propaganda activities in this city [9]. Sayyid Abedolbaghi played the greatest role in educating Sayyid Hassan and guided him on the path of knowledge and piety, and upon his death, in a will, he encouraged and recommended Sayyid Hassan to continue studying religious sciences; when Sayyid Abedolbaghi bade farewell to the mortal world, Modarres was fourteen years old[10].

Higher Education

Modarres traveled to Isfahan in 1298 AH to continue religious studies and for 13 years attended the sessions of more than thirty teachers in the seminary of this city[11]. Initially, he engaged in reading Jami' al-Muqaddimat in morphology and syntax and learned the preliminaries of Arabic literature, Logic, and rhetoric from teachers such as Mirza Abdolali Herandi. In the presence of Akhund Molla Mohammad Kashi, he studied the book Sharh al-Lum'ah in jurisprudence and thereafter Qawanin and Fusul in the science of principles of jurisprudence. One of the teachers who taught Modarres the knowledge of wisdom, mysticism, and philosophy was the renowned sage Mirza Jahangir Khan Qashqai[12].

Modarres reached the level of ijtihad in jurisprudence and principles during this period in the presence of Ayatollahs Seyyed Mohammad Baqer Dorche'i and Sheikh Morteza Rizi and other teachers, and he gained such proficiency in principles that he was able to transcribe the lectures of the late Rizi, which contained ten thousand lines. Martyr Modarres has included the summary of his academic biography in the Isfahan Seminary in the introduction of Sharh al-Rasa'il, which was written in the Arabic language. After completing his studies in Isfahan, he entered Najaf Ashraf in Sha'ban 1311 AH, and after visiting the holy shrine of the first light of Imamate and paying homage to Ayatollah Mirzay Shirazi, he took up residence in the school attributed to Sadr and became roommates with the renowned mystic Haj Aqa Sheikh Hassanali Isfahani. Modarres benefited from the lecture sessions of Ayatollahs Seyyed Mohammad Fesharaki and Shari'at Isfahani in this city and had connections with Seyyed Abolhassan Isfahani, Seyyed Mohammad Sadegh Tabatabai, Sheikh Abdolkarim Haeri, Seyyed Hebatuddin Shahrestani, and Seyyed Mustafa Kashani, and conducted discussions on advanced lessons with Ayatollah Haj Seyyed Abolhassan and Ayatollah Haj Seyyed Ali Kazeroni.

During his residence in Najaf, Modarres worked on Thursdays and Fridays of every week and spent the income on his living for the other five days. After seven years of residence in Najaf and the confirmation of his ijtihad status by the scholars of this city, in 1318 AH (at the age of forty), he traveled from Nasiriyah to Ahvaz and the Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari region towards Isfahan.

Teaching Period

After returning from Najaf and a short stay in Qomsheh, particularly the village of Asfeh, and meeting with family and relatives, he left Qomsheh to reside in Isfahan. In the mornings, he taught Jurisprudence and Principles at Madreseh Jodeh Koochak (Shahid Modarres School), and in the afternoons, he taught Logic and Sharh al-Manzumeh at Madreseh Jodeh Bozorg. On Thursdays, he acquainted students with the pure springs of wisdom in Nahj al-Balagha. His mastery during teaching was such that from this time he became known as "Modarres" (Teacher). Alongside teaching, he fought against oppression and injustice towards people using the weapon of logic and argument, and opposed the actions of tyrants.

When government forces were completely defeated in clashes with popular forces, the administration of Isfahan was handed to the Provincial Council. Samsam al-Saltaneh, who played a major role in the Constitutional Revolution as commander of Bakhtiari tribal armed forces, headed the Isfahan government. Initially, he demanded compensation for troop expenses and damages incurred during the war against Qajar dynasty despotism from the people of Isfahan, demanding it even via whip lashes. Modarres, who was present at the Isfahan Provincial Council session and held the vice-presidency, was deeply upset upon hearing this news. He stated that the governor does not have such a right, and if whipping is a Sharia penalty, it falls under the mujtahid's jurisdiction. He argued that they (Qajar rulers) beat people yesterday in the name of Despotism and these ones today in the name of Constitutionalism.

Samsam al-Saltaneh, seeing this situation, ordered the arrest and exile of the fighting cleric Modarres. However, when the news of this faqih's exile reached the people of Isfahan, they closed their businesses and followed Modarres. This situation deeply worried Samsam's agents, and the public anger forced the Isfahan governor to surrender. He was compelled to reconsider tax collection and other behaviors. Modarres returned to Isfahan amidst the roaring cries of the people saying "Long live Modarres".

During his teaching days, he attended to the condition of students, seminaries, and their endowments, pressuring trustees to allocate endowment income to students. His unyielding stance against wrongful acts and illogical matters was unpleasant for a group of profiteers and opportunists, who decided to assassinate him. However, due to Modarres' courage and amazing behavior, this assassination failed, and the mentioned individuals failed in their deceitful plot[13].

Ayatollah Shahid Sayyid Hassan Modarres reached the high rank of Ijtihad in his youth. Scientifically and jurisprudentially, he was a comprehensive mujtahid, capable of issuing fatwas and worthy of emulation. Although he did not agree to publish his treatise, he left behind detailed and deep works in Jurisprudence, Principles, and other religious sciences. Ayatollah Marashi Najafi (RA) praised his jurisprudential compilations and added that he had permission to narrate hadith from Modarres[14].

Ayatollah Haj Sayyid Reza Behaeddini stated in an interview that the late Modarres was a scientific, religious, and political man, and such an individual is more important than a mere scientific and religious man. Because this is the manifestation of Wilayah, and if there is no Wilayah and politics for Muslims, the branches of Islam will not be fully realized[15].

Upon entering Tehran, Modarres started his class at the porch under the clock in Sepahsalar School (current Shahid Motahhari) at the earliest opportunity, emphasizing that his main job is teaching and politics is his second job[16]. On 27 Tir 1304 SH, when he became the trustee of this school, to ensure religious students made better use of their time and pursued lessons and discussions with greater diligence, he implemented a student examination plan for the first time. He drafted regulations for the proper administration of this school, attended to students' academic affairs, and endured much hardship to revive and renovate the school's village and shop endowments. On Thursday afternoons, often in severe summer heat, he went to villages around Varamin, personally inspecting the qanats of these villages. Sometimes he went inside the wells and helped repair them, not hesitating to draw mud from the well with a wheel[17]. In this school, personalities such as Ayatollah Abulhassan Sha'rani, Ayatollah Sayyid Morteza Pasandideh (elder brother of Imam Khomeini), Sheikh Mohammadali Lavasani, etc., were trained[18].

Research Activities

In Isfahan, during his youth, Modarres wrote a research book on jurisprudence and principles, which cemented his juridical standing. From that martyr, a treatise on deductive jurisprudence remains, which if examined by experts and scholars, they would attest that upon completion, this book is comparable to the book Makasib by Sheikh Ansari[19].

Modarres was the first person to formalize the teaching of Nahj al-Balagha in the seminaries and the first Mujtahid to include this book as part of the students' curriculum. Figures such as Haj Mirza Aqa Ali Shirazi - Professor Martyr Motahhari - and Ayatollah Borujerdi learned Nahj al-Balagha from Martyr Modarres. Among the important and noteworthy works of this wise jurist was the compilation of a comprehensive commentary for the Quran; in addition to collecting manuscript and printed commentaries, he invited a number of scholars to cooperate to achieve this purpose, and had this detailed comprehensive plan been implemented, it would have been a very excellent method and a new and profound style. Modarres taught philosophy for a long time and was skilled in mysticism, and in Khaf prison, he interpreted the Masnavi for a number of officers of the fortress where he was held[20].


Works

1. Gloss on Kifayat al-Usul by Akhund Khorasani. 2. Risalah al-Fiqhiyyah which has recently been published by the effort of Professor Abolfazl Shukouri. 3. A treatise on Tartib (in the science of Usul al-Fiqh). 4. A treatise on Subsequent Condition (in Usul). 5. A treatise on Contracts and Unilateral Declarations. 6. A treatise on the necessity and non-necessity of possession in Waqf. 7. The book Hujjiyat al-Zann (in Usul). 8. Commentary on the Treatises of Sheikh Morteza Ansari. 9. Margin on the book Al-Nikah by the late Ayatollah Sheikh Mohammad Reza Najafi Masjedshahi. 10. Cycle of lectures on Usul by Mirza Shirazi. 11. A treatise on the condition of Imam and Ma'mum. 12. A book on the chapter of Istishab (in the science of Usul). 13. The book Ahwal al-Zann fi Usul al-Din. 14. Fluent commentary on Nahj al-Balagha. 15. Principles of Judicial Organization with (cooperation of others). 16. Autobiography sent to Ettela'at newspaper.


Modarres' Personality Traits

In terms of personality, although some have characterized Modarres' decisiveness as pride, power-seeking, lack of adherence to specific principles, stubbornness, incident-seeking, and selfishness; [21]but a review of his life indicates abundant intelligence, honesty and piety, simple living, humor and wit, chastity, fluency and smoothness of speech, poetic temperament, knowledge, work and effort, detachment and liberty, avoidance of pretense and demagoguery, opposition to oppression, generosity, precision and order, sincerity and faith, unshakeable will, courage and bravery, self-sacrifice, statesmanship, public service, defense of people's rights, performing public benefit affairs, and... are in Modarres' personality[22].

Modarres possessed just economic thought independent of exploiters, servitude, development, and construction. In the political field, he considered politics as identical to religion, friendship with all the world but confrontation with the aggression of foreign countries, prioritizing Islamic governments, vigilance against colonizers, strengthening military and security forces, attention to greatness, preserving Islam and human freedom were always in his mind. He paid attention to the necessity of Muslim solidarity to preserve their dignity and was always concerned about the lack of Unity and colonization by Western countries and considered the separation of politics from religion as one of the causes of the backwardness of Muslims. His criterion in cooperating with individuals was also preserving national interests (current and future of the country) and religious affairs[23].


Modarres' Words

In one of the sessions of the Sixth Parliament, Modarres says the following about the relationship between Islamic identity and patriotism: "... With little understanding, everyone knows that having governance in a ruined village is better than captivity in a developed country. Therefore, every Iranian who is religious and everyone who is honorable, as much as they can, must defend their homeland based on two principles and not submit to any power. One of these two principles is Islamic identity and the other is patriotism, and in our country, the principle of Islamic identity is stronger, since a true Muslim does not submit unless his life is cut off. To attract such Muslims, Christian states build mosques in their capitals, but a superficial and thoughtless modernist can be made to submit with a courtesy. The principle of Islamic identity and the principle of patriotism are not mutually exclusive, and the relationship between these two, among the four logical relations, is absolute general and particular, meaning every Muslim is a patriot. What love of homeland is from faith. But it is possible that patriotism is not Muslim, just as non-Muslim countries preserve themselves based on this principle." [24].

Scientific Activity

Sayyid Hasan learned the preliminaries of Arabic and Persian in Shahreza from the age of 6 to 14, and at the age of 16 (Farvardin 1398 AH), following the death of his grandfather and according to his will, he went to the Isfahan Seminary and studied for thirteen years under about thirty teachers; such as Mirza Abdolali Herandi, Jahangir Qashqai, and Molla Mohammad Kashani. After completing the advanced level (1311 AH) and concurrently with the Dakhaniyeh incident, he went to Najaf, spent seven years studying under teachers such as Akhund Molla Mohammad Kazem Khorasani and Ayatollah Sayyid Kazem Yazdi and succeeded in obtaining the degree of Ijtihad. Modarres also engaged in scholarly discussions with figures such as Sayyid Abulhasan Isfahani and Sayyid Ali Kazeroni[25]. After receiving Ijtihad, he returned to Isfahan and taught Jurisprudence and Principles at the Jaddah School (current Modarres) in Isfahan. Modarres never abandoned teaching, even during his time in the Parliament. He considered teaching his primary job and politics his secondary job[26].

Modarres' scientific life, which has been largely overshadowed by his political activities, can be understood considering his various works and writings in the fields of Jurisprudence and Principles, Beliefs and Exegesis, Political and Social[27] that remain from him, though some exist only in manuscript form and some remain only by name. Commentary on Rasael Sheikh Ansari, Commentary on Kifayah al-Usul, Risalah fi Sahw al-Imam wa al-Ma'mum, Risalah fi Qada al-Fawa'it, Risalah fi al-Daman al-Ghasib al-Maghsub al-Fa'it, Risalah fi Ba'd Masa'il al-Iddah and... Usul Tashkilat Adliyah, The Yellow Book, and Khafnameh (Political) are among them[28]. Also, he intended to write an exegesis on the Quran, but exile did not allow him this opportunity. His discussions in the Parliament are another source for accessing his views. In addition to Islamic sciences, Modarres was familiar with Western history and considered knowledge combined with piety beneficial for humans[29].


Political Activities

Modarres always paid attention to social and political issues throughout his life. During the struggle of freedom seekers against the despotic government of Mohammad Ali Shah, he united with some clerics of Isfahan such as Aqa Nurullah Isfahani and Sardar Asad, rose up against Iqbal al-Dawlah Kashi, the governor of Isfahan, and after the establishment of the Constitutional Revolution, he became a member of the Isfahan Provincial Council[30]. After the Minor Tyranny in the Constitutional period and the holding of the second term of the National Consultative Assembly, Modarres (1288 SH) was selected by the clerics of Najaf as one of the five top-ranking clerics to supervise the laws approved by the Parliament[31]. In the Parliament, he always assisted the government in solving problems through various speeches and discussions, and fiercely fought against the illegal demands of government trustees, trying to prevent them.

At the end of the second term of the Parliament, which was accompanied by internal tensions, the return of Mohammad Ali Shah to gain the throne, and the ultimatum of Russia to Iran, due to the unimplementability of decisions, the Parliament's term ended on 3 Dey 1290 SH. Modarres' famous phrase stating "Now that we are destined to be destroyed, why should we destroy ourselves with our own hands" was in response to the 48-hour ultimatum of Russia to Iran[32]. After the closure of the Parliament, while teaching and managing the Sepahsalar School (which was entrusted to him upon his initial arrival from Isfahan to Tehran), he was present in Tehran political circles; meanwhile, the sessions of the Parliament's Justice Commission were held, and there were also approvals[33].


Member of Parliament

After a three-year hiatus, with the holding of the third term of Parliament elections (Azar 1914 SH), Modarres became a representative of the Parliament by the people of Tehran; however, due to the outbreak of World War I, this term of Parliament did not last more than a year. Following the movement of Cossack forces towards Tehran in mid-Aban 1915 SH, a group of parliamentarians including Modarres, along with many statesmen, clerics, and parliamentary representatives, moved towards Qom and formed the National Defense Committee, then moved towards Kashan and Isfahan; however, due to pursuit by the Russians, they changed direction towards Kermanshah. With the formation of the Provisional Government of Migrants in Kermanshah under the presidency of Reza Qoli Khan Nezam al-Saltaneh (Governor of Borujerd, Lorestan, and Khuzestan) and Modarres' ministry in Justice and Endowments, they sought to defend the country. Following the advance of Russians towards Kermanshah, the provisional government moved towards western Iran, Basra, Baghdad, and finally Istanbul, and stayed there until the end of World War I, which lasted two years, and met and negotiated several times with the Ottoman Sultan and high-ranking officials of that country[34]. During the migration from Iran, Modarres was also subjected to several assassination attempts.

Trusteeship of Sepahsalar School

After the end of the war and return to Tehran, Modarres, during the parliamentary recess, continued teaching and the trusteeship of Sepahsalar School. With the holding of the elections for the fourth term of the National Consultative Assembly in 1296 SH, he was again elected as representative by the people of Tehran[35].

Among Modarres's actions in early 1297 SH, while the Iranian government faced problems such as the evacuation of foreign forces, determining and obtaining war damages inflicted on Iran, establishing new relations and signing a contract with the northern neighbor where the Tsarist government had collapsed, as well as forming state councils, Modarres staunchly demanded the selection of an individual more competent than Samssam al-Saltaneh at the head of the government. This demand was initially opposed by Ahmad Shah and finally, with widespread opposition from Modarres, sit-ins, and its spread among various social strata, agreement was reached on this demand, and Vosough al-Dowleh was placed at the head of affairs. Modarres, who was one of his supporters during the first year of Vosough al-Dowleh's administration, after the announcement of the conclusion of the 1919 AD contract, placed himself at the head of his opponents and exerted all his efforts to prevent the implementation of the contract; consequently, Vosough al-Dowleh resigned from office and subsequent successors also made no progress[36]. After some time, with the coup d'état of 3rd Esfand 1299 SH, Modarres and a group of others were arrested by the coup plotters, and throughout the administration of Seyyed Zia'eddin until the premiership of Ghavam al-Saltaneh on 9th Khordad, when the order for their release was issued, they remained in prison[37].


Formation of the Reformists Party

After a six-year recess with the reopening of the fourth Parliament (Tir month 1300 SH), Modarres, who had assumed the leadership of the parliamentary majority and was also elected as vice-president, along with a number of like-minded individuals, formed the Reformists Party, the first action of which was the rejection of the credentials of individuals involved in the 3rd Esfand coup. Modarres's first objections to the illegal demands of Reza Khan, in his capacity as Minister of War, also began in this same Parliament[38]. The impeachment of Mostowfi's government due to his inability to prevent the excesses of the Minister of War and his foreign policy, along with Modarres's speeches expressing his political philosophy of 'negative and positive balance' (meaning the negation of dominating powers, exemplified by 'non-existence is better than existence,' which later manifested in the guise of Mosaddeq's negative balance policy), are among the achievements of this era[39].


Entry into the Parliament

In the year 1302 SH, during the fifth term, Modarres also entered the National Consultative Assembly as the representative of the people of Tehran, this time assuming the leadership of the minority. One of the most important proposals of the majority was changing the regime from constitutional monarchy to republic, which Modarres opposed having become aware of the nature of this change. The reason for Modarres's opposition to the republic, despite considering it one of the best forms of governance, was the invisible interference of England in this matter, which after some time, similar to Turkey, would turn into individual dictatorship with the lifetime presidency of Reza Khan. Therefore, he was not opposed to the principle of the republic, but rather opposed dictatorship in any form and Reza Khan, behind whom stood England, whether [in the form of] republic or monarchy[40]. Among other important actions of Modarres in the Parliament was fighting against Sardar Sepah and his illegal actions, and even three attempts to impeach Reza Khan, which finally, with Modarres being stabbed and his absence from the Parliament, Reza Khan's government gained a vote of confidence from the Parliament, and Modarres's impeachment proposal was not carried out. Another agenda of the fifth Parliament was the proposal for the extinction of the Qajar dynasty and the transfer of temporary government to Reza Khan and the formation of a Constituent Assembly to amend some of the supplementary principles of the Constitution on 9th Aban 1304 SH, which despite some oppositions, at the head of which was Modarres, the proposal was approved, and Sardar Sepah ascended to kingship[41].


Sixth Term Elections

After the coronation of Reza Shah, Modarres again managed to enter the Parliament in the sixth term elections (Tir month 1305 SH) despite the interference of the Police Department; however, he constantly lived under pressure under the surveillance of secret agents, and newspapers also did not have the right to publish the thoughts of the parliamentary minority. On 7th Aban 1305 SH, while going to Sepahsalar Mosque for teaching, Modarres was attacked by several individuals and was sent to the hospital. It is said that this assassination attempt was carried out by police officers, by order of Reza Shah, and the famous phrase 'To the blindness of the enemies' eyes, Modarres is still alive' was in response to Reza Shah's condolence telegram during those same days. Modarres recovered after a few months and appeared in the Parliament, meanwhile, most of Modarres's reform proposal papers also belong to this period of the Parliament[42].

Seventh Term Elections

Modares could not enter the Parliament in the seventh term elections due to government interference in the votes, and according to Modares, not even a single vote for himself had been counted. While Modares was engaged in his scholarly activities, his spiritual courage and frankness of speech, which had brought his struggles against Reza Shah to a peak, and the fact that England also opposed the presence of figures like Modares, caused them to take a negative stance against him. Even to tarnish Modares' reputation, they introduced him as one of the supporters of Sheikh Khazal (a supporter of England and a rebel against the Sardar Sepah government in 1303 SH) via a forged letter and signature from him, [43]. These matters eventually led to Modares being arrested by government agents on 16 Mehr 1307 SH, and exiled to the city of Khaf on the border of Iran and Afghanistan under very unfavorable conditions.


Religion in the Arena of Politics

In the second principle of the Supplement to the Constitution of Iran, it was stipulated that laws approved by the National Consultative Assembly must be under the supervision of a committee of top-ranking ulama and mujtahids. According to this principle, at least five mujtahids had to be present in the Parliament each time to supervise the laws, and their content had to be approved and signed by them from a Sharia perspective. In the second term of the Parliament, Martyr Modares was selected by jurists and sources of emulation as a top-ranking mujtahid to go to the Parliament along with four other mujtahids and supervise the approved laws. Martyr Modares attended the Parliament on 28 Dhu al-Hijjah 1328 AH after 194 sessions had passed of the second Parliament, but he began delivering speeches from the 200th session onward.

When Modares stepped into the Parliament precinct, some thought he was an ordinary cleric and did not believe that this thin Sayyid with a wooden cane and coarse cloth clothing would soon take charge of all affairs, and that no one could match him in debate and argumentation. The sensitive position of Iran, the incompetence of the rulers, and the complete influence of foreigners imposed conditions on Iran, some of which were neutralized by the resistance and perseverance of Martyr Modares. One of these cases was the shameful ultimatum of the Russian government with the collusion of the British government in Dhu al-Hijjah 1329, during which they demanded the expulsion of Mr. Shuster (who was engaged in handling Iran's financial affairs) [44]. Martyr Mohammad Khiabani and Martyr Modares opposed this ultimatum. As a result of this opposition and also public demonstrations following the clerics, the Parliament failed to make a decision to respond to the Russian government [45].

In the midst of the devastating First World War, when less than a year had passed of the third Parliament's term, the then Prime Minister and Mostowfi ol-Mamalek officially declared Iran as a neutral government in this war. However, Russia and England ignored Iran's neutrality, and the center of the Iranian government was attacked by foreigners. For this reason, a group of representatives began migration to oppose this move and resist the invading forces, which was in fact a general and comprehensive uprising that gradually individuals from all classes joined, and prominent figures such as Modares, Haj Sayyid Nuruddin Iraqi, and Haj Aqa Nurullah Isfahani were seen among them. In the city of Qom, the migrants formed the National Defense Committee, but forced to retreat in confrontation with the Russians, they went towards the west of the country and formed a provisional government in these regions, of which Martyr Modares was responsible for the Ministry of Justice and Endowments. In this plan, a group instigated by England and Russia intended to assassinate Modares and the head of the government, namely Nezam ol-Saltaneh Mafi, but their plot was discovered and neutralized. Martyr Modares, along with a number of other prominent statesmen, departed for the Ottoman territory and, with utmost simplicity, immediately upon arrival in Istanbul, began teaching religious sciences at the Iranians' School in this city, but after a while, Sultan Mehmed V, the Ottoman King, invited him to be present at his palace for a meeting and negotiation.

In this meeting, Modares spoke with amazing resistance, courage, and self-confidence, and asked the Ottoman government to prevent the annexation of part of Azerbaijan's soil to their country. In his meeting with other figures of this country, he spoke about unity of Muslims, the foundations of Muslims' power, and the progress of Islam [46].

Struggle against Reza Khan's Despotism

One of the tragic incidents coinciding with the term of the Fourth Majles was Reza Khan's uprising as Minister of War. He attempted to bring the affairs of the police, budget, and military forces under his own control. Shahid Modarres, without fearing Reza Khan's spider-like organization, began the struggle against this hated figure with extraordinary spiritual power and in session 148 of the Fourth Majles term, coinciding with 12 Mehr 1301, he delivered a speech against Reza Khan and stated: "In the current situation, the security of the country is in the hands of someone whom most of us are not satisfied with, and I must say without fear or veil that we have the power to dismiss and remove him!"[47].

Reza Khan, to deceive the people and implement colonial programs, nurtured the false wish of republicanism in his corrupted mind and watered it with the hand of foreign agents. This seemingly popular movement, but inwardly against the independence and cultural identity of Iran, was designed according to the decision of England to concentrate power in the person of Reza Khan. Modarres sensed the danger of this turmoil sooner than anyone else and sought a solution. Tadayyon, who was a serious supporter of Reza Khan, tried to have his supporting representatives leave the session during Modarres' speech against the republic, but he was unsuccessful. However, outside the session and during the break, a person named Hussein Bahrami, known as Ahya al-Saltaneh, after a verbal dispute instigated by Tadayyon, slapped Modarres firmly on the cheek! This action caused riot and protest among the people in Tehran.

Reza Khan's supporters helplessly took Reza Khan out of the Majles through a secret route, and Shahid Modarres came among the people with complete calm and thanked them for their awakening and awareness. The thunderous cries of the people continued, and Reza Khan, who saw this move as a disgraceful defeat for himself, went to Bumehen (located 40 km from Tehran) in a state of anger on 18 Farvardin 1302 SH.

After his departure, Reza Khan's mercenaries threatened the Majles that they must bring back Sardar Sepah and spread rumors that otherwise a coup would occur. But Shahid Modarres comforted the representatives and said: "Do not fear, he cannot stage a coup!" However, most representatives did not accept Modarres' words, selected a group to bring back Sardar Sepah, and a twelve-person committee headed by Mosaddeq al-Saltaneh was assigned to carry out this task[48]. After bringing Reza Khan back, with a trick that a group of representatives had prepared, they delayed Shahid Modarres at Qavam al-Saltaneh's house on the pretext that Reza Khan wanted to enter through friendship, and in his absence, the Majles expressed inclination to Sardar Sepah with 92 votes.

In the Fifth Majles, while fighting Muslims were in detention and exile and heavy pressures were exerted on Modarres and his companions from all sides, Modarres considered raising the issue of impeachment as the only solution. And on 7th Mordad 1303, with a skillful introduction away from violence and dispute, he exposed Reza Shah's crimes and read the text of the impeachment which had been signed by him and a few of his assistants. But due to the noise and clamor raised by Reza Khan's supporters and a group of thugs, the impeachment was not raised and was postponed to a more suitable time. In the Sixth Majles term, Modarres undertook the presidency by seniority of the Majles. At this juncture, Modarres and his supporters were under more pressure, and that virtuous Sayyid went less to the Majles and was more engaged in teaching. And when opponents and adversaries observed that Modarres' cry for justice would not be silenced, they decided to assassinate him, but this move of theirs failed. The fired bullets injured Modarres' arm and shoulder, and Modarres regained his health after 64 days and appeared in the Majles on 11 Dey 1305.

With the arrival of the Seventh term of the National Consultative Assembly in 1307, Reza Khan decided to prevent Modarres and his companions from entering the Majles by any means possible, and for this reason, held a completely dictated election. In such a way that not even one vote came out of the boxes in Modarres' name. For this reason, Modarres said in his Majles class: "(If) 20,000 people who voted for me in the previous term have all died or not voted, then what happened to the one vote that I gave to myself!"

Martyrdom

Modarres, after nine years of exile while an order for his murder had been issued, was transferred to Kashmar prison on 22 Aban 1316 SH and around sunset on 27 Ramadan, 10 Azar 1316, at the age of 69[49]. He was initially poisoned, and due to the poison's ineffectiveness, was strangled to death by government agents[50]. He was buried secretly in Kashmar, while his grave was marked secretly by the residents of Kashmar for four years[51]. The details of Modarres' murder were revealed after several years of silence, following Shahrivar 1320 and the fall of Reza Shah, and were investigated in the judiciary[52]. After the Islamic Revolution of Iran, Imam Khomeini (may God have mercy on him), who considered Modarres to possess a great spirit and an eloquent tongue for truth,[53] issued the order for the reconstruction of his grave on 28 Shahrivar 1363 SH[54].


Footnotes

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  1. ↑ Maki, Hussein, Modarres Hero of Freedom, Vol 1, p54, Tehran, Book Translation and Publication Agency, 1980
  2. ↑ Modarresi, Ali, Men of the Times (Modarres the Martyr, National Genius of Iran), p397, Tehran, Hezaran, 1995, 2nd Edition
  3. ↑ Golban, Mohammad, Modarres in History and Image, p25, n.p., Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance Printing and Publishing Organization, 1988
  4. ↑ Baghi, Abdolali, Modarres the Invincible Mujahid, p26, Qom, Gavah, 1991
  5. ↑ Modarresi, Ali, Men of the Times (Modarres the Martyr, National Genius of Iran), p45-46, Tehran, Hezaran, 1995, 2nd Edition
  6. ↑ Baghi, Abdolali, Modarres the Invincible Mujahid, p26, Qom, Gavah, 1991
  7. ↑ Ibid, p32
  8. ↑ Tabatabai, Mohit, Article 'Modarres' Childhood', Mohit Magazine, Issue 2, Year 1, Mehr 1942
  9. ↑ Baghi, Abdolali, Modarres the Invincible Mujahid, p26
  10. ↑ Amin, Sayyid Mohsen, A'yan al-Shia, Vol 5, p211
  11. ↑ Ibid
  12. ↑ Baqi, Abdolali, Modarres Mojahedi Shekastnapazir, pp. 160-161
  13. ↑ Modarresi, Ali, Modarres Shahid Nabogheh Melli Iran, p. 45
  14. ↑ Modarres Ghahramani Azadi, Hossein Makki, Vol. 2, p. 129, quoted from Yadnameh Modarres
  15. ↑ Howzeh Magazine, Year 3, Serial No. 16, p. 42
  16. ↑ Modarres Ghahramani Azadi, Hossein Makki, Vol. 2, p. 74, quoted from Yadnameh Modarres
  17. ↑ Baqi, Abdolali, Modarres Mojahedi Shekast Napazir, p. 33
  18. ↑ Shakouri, Abolfazl, Article on Modarres' Scientific and Jurisprudential Personality, included in Modarres, Vol. 2
  19. ↑ Modarres Ghahramani Azadi, Hossein Makki, Vol. 2, pp. 57-58, quoted from Modarres Memorial
  20. ↑ Modarresi, Ali, Foundation of Islamic Revolution History, Vol. 1, p. 268
  21. ↑ Taheri, Seyyed Sadr al-Din, An Analytical Review of Modarres' Political Life, multiple pages, Tehran, Rasa 1994
  22. ↑ Ramazani, Abbas, Seyyed Hassan Modarres, pp. 139-141, Tehran, Tarfand, 2007, Second Edition
  23. ↑ Modarresi, Ali, Men of the Times (Martyr Modarres, National Genius of Iran), p. 429, Tehran, Hezaran, 1995, Second Edition
  24. ↑ Torkaman, Mohammad, Modarres in Five Legislative Periods of the National Consultative Assembly, Vol. 2, p. 276, Tehran, Office of Islamic Culture Publication, 1988, Tehran, Institute for Research and Cultural Studies, 1995
  25. ↑ Davani, Ali, Teachers of Ayatollah Martyr Sayyid Hasan Modarres, pp. 42-82, Modarres, History and Politics, Tehran, Institute for Research and Cultural Studies, 1996
  26. ↑ Martyr Modarres Memorial, Isfahan, Cultural Section of Jahad Daneshgahi of Isfahan University, p. 74, 1990
  27. ↑ Estadi, Reza, Commentary on Rasael Sheikh Ansari, pp. 26-43, Modarres, History and Politics (Collection of Articles), Tehran, Institute for Research and Cultural Studies, 1996
  28. ↑ Modarres, Sayyid Hasan, Ganjineh Khaf: Collection of Lessons and Daily Notes of Martyr Sayyid Hasan Modarres in Exile, edited by Nasrollah Salehi, Tehran, Tahouri, 2006
  29. ↑ Modarresi, Ali, Modarres, Parliament and History, Parliament and Research Journal, Farvardin 1994, Issue Seven
  30. ↑ Aqeli, Baqer, Biography of Contemporary Political and Military Men of Iran, Vol. 3, p. 1372, Tehran, Goftar va Elm Publication, 2001
  31. ↑ Modarres and Parliament (Letters and Documents), p. 19, Tehran, Institute for Research and Cultural Studies, 1994
  32. ↑ Imam Khomeini, Sahifeh Imam, Vol. 1, p. 422, Tehran, Institute for Publishing Imam's Works, 2000
  33. ↑ Modarres and Parliament (Letters and Documents), p. 41, Tehran, Institute for Research and Cultural Studies, 1994
  34. ↑ Bahar (Malek al-Shoara), Mohammad Taghi, A Brief History of Political Parties in Iran: Extinction of the Qajars, Vol. 1, pp. 14-23, Tehran, Amir Kabir, 2007, Seventh Edition
  35. ↑ Makki, Hossein, Modarres: Qahremān-e Āzādi, Vol. 1, pp. 115–146, Tehran, Book Translation and Publication Company, 1359 SH
  36. ↑ Modarres va Majles (Letters and Documents), p. 50, Tehran, Institute for Cultural Research and Studies, 1373 SH
  37. ↑ Bahār (Malek al-Sho'arā), Mohammad-Taqi, Tārikh-e Mokhtasar-e Ahzāb-e Siāsi-ye Irān: Enqerāz-e Qājāriye, Vol. 2, pp. 19–20, Tehran, Amir Kabir, 1386 SH, 7th edition
  38. ↑ Aqeli, Bagher, Sharh-e Hāl-e Rejāl-e Siāsi va Nezāmi-ye Mo'āser-e Irān, Vol. 3, p. 1378, Tehran, Nashr-e Goftār va Elm, 1380 SH, Vol. 3, p. 1379
  39. ↑ Bahār (Malek al-Sho'arā), Mohammad-Taqi, Tārikh-e Mokhtasar-e Ahzāb-e Siāsi-ye Irān: Enqerāz-e Qājāriye, Vol. 2, p. 57, Tehran, Amir Kabir, 1386 SH, 7th edition
  40. ↑ Notq-hā va Maktubāt va Yāddāsht-hāyi Pirāmūn-e Mojāhed-e Shahid Sayyed Hossein Modarres, [No Place], Abu Zar, 1355 SH
  41. ↑ Modarres va Majles (Letters and Documents), p. 41, Tehran, Institute for Cultural Research and Studies, 1373 SH
  42. ↑ Modarres, Tārikh va Siāsat, pp. 91–117, Tehran, Institute for Cultural Research and Studies, 1375 SH
  43. ↑ Makki, Hossein, Modares Qahraman Azadi, Vol 2, pp 520-539, Tehran, Book Translation and Publication Agency, 1359
  44. ↑ Raisinia, Rahim, Nahid, Abdolhossein, Do Mobarez Mashruteh, pp 206-207
  45. ↑ Kasravi, Ahmad, Tarikh Hejdah Saleh Azarbaijan, p 488
  46. ↑ Baghi, Abdolali, Modares Mojahedi Shekast Napazir, p 42
  47. ↑ Torkaman, Mohammad, Modarres in Five Terms of the National Consultative Assembly, Vol 1, pp 327-328
  48. ↑ Ayat, Hussein, The True Face of Mosaddeq al-Saltaneh, p 40
  49. ↑ Maki, Hossein, Modarres Qahraman-e Azadi, vol. 2, pp. 860-865, Tehran, Bengah-e Tarjomeh va Nashr-e Ketab, 1359
  50. ↑ Modarresi, Ali, Mard-e Ruzgaran (Modarres Shahid, Nabeghe-ye Melli-ye Iran), pp. 322-333, Tehran, Hezaran, 1374, 2nd ed.
  51. ↑ Modarresi, Ali, Mard-e Ruzgaran (Modarres Shahid, Nabeghe-ye Melli-ye Iran), Tehran, Hezaran, 1374, 2nd ed., p. 398
  52. ↑ Maki, Hossein, Modarres Qahraman-e Azadi, vol. 2, pp. 787-833, Tehran, Bengah-e Tarjomeh va Nashr-e Ketab, 1359, Modarresi, Ali, Mard-e Ruzgaran (Modarres Shahid, Nabeghe-ye Melli-ye Iran), pp. 333-382, Tehran, Hezaran, 1374, 2nd ed., Aqeli, Bagher, Sharh-e Hal-e Rejal-e Siyasi va Nezami-ye Moaser-e Iran, vol. 3, pp. 1387-1405, Tehran, Nashr-e Goftar va Elm, 1380
  53. ↑ Imam Khomeini, Sahifeh-ye Imam, vol. 19, p. 73, Tehran, Mu'assaseh-ye Nashr-e Asar-e Imam, 1379
  54. ↑ Modarres va Majles (Nameh-ha va Asnad), p. 157, Tehran, Mu'assaseh-ye Pazhuhesh va Motale'at-e Farhangi, 1373
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