Islam
Islam (Template:Lang-ar) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, the religion's founder and the final prophet and messenger of God (Allah). Adherents of Islam, called Muslims, believe that the Quran is the verbatim word of God as revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. Muslims consider Muhammad, through his teachings and normative example (the Sunnah), to be the perfect model for human life. Islam is the world's second-largest religion, with approximately 1.9 billion followers, known as Muslims, constituting about 25% of the global population (Pew Research Center, 2020).[1]
Etymology and meaning
The word "Islam" is derived from the Arabic root s-l-m (س ل م), which carries meanings of peace, purity, submission, and surrender. In a religious context, it means "voluntary submission to the will of God (Allah)" (Esposito, 2002).[2] A follower of Islam is called a Muslim (مُسْلِم), meaning "one who submits (to God)."
Beliefs
The core beliefs of Islam are articulated in the articles of faith (ʿAqīdah). While Sunnis and Shias share fundamental beliefs, there are distinct emphases and additions within Shia theology.
Shia principles of religion
Shia theology incorporates the above but structures its creed around Five Principles of Religion (Usul al-Din), which place particular emphasis on divine justice and divinely appointed leadership:
Tawhid (Oneness of God)
Adl (Divine Justice): This is a distinct, emphasized principle in Shia theology, asserting that God is inherently just and does not commit evil. Human free will is necessary for this justice to be meaningful.
Nubuwwah (Prophethood)
Imamah (Leadership of the Imams): This is the core point of divergence from Sunni Islam. Shias believe that after Muhammad, God appointed a succession of infallible Imams from his progeny (the Ahl al-Bayt) to lead the Muslim community in spiritual and temporal matters, providing authoritative interpretation of the Quran and Sunnah. For Twelver Shi'ism, these are twelve Imams.
Qiyamah (Day of Resurrection) (Momen, 1985).[3]
Belief in the angels and holy books is included within these principles.
Sunni articles of faith
In Sunni Islam, the foundational creed is based on six core beliefs:
Oneness of God (Tawhid): The absolute, uncompromising monotheism that God is one (Al-ʾAḥad) and unique (Al-Wāḥid). Associating partners with God (shirk) is the gravest sin.
Angels (Malāʾikah): Belief in angels, created from light, who are unseen beings that carry out God's commands.
Prophets and Messengers (Rusul wa Anbiyāʾ): God has sent prophets and messengers to every nation, beginning with Adam and including Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and culminating in Muhammad, who is the "Seal of the Prophets" (Khatam an-Nabiyyin).
Revealed Books (Kutub): Belief in the divine scriptures revealed to various prophets, including the Torah (Tawrat) to Moses, the Psalms (Zabur) to David, the Gospel (Injil) to Jesus, and the Quran to Muhammad. Muslims believe the Quran is the final, unaltered, and perfect revelation.
Day of Resurrection and Judgment (Yawm al-Qiyāmah): Belief in an afterlife where all humans will be resurrected and held accountable for their deeds, leading to eternal paradise (Jannah) or hell (Jahannam).
Divine Decree (Qadr): Belief that everything, good and evil, occurs by the will and knowledge of God, though humans possess free will and are responsible for their choices (Brown, 2009).[4]
Practices: Branches and Pillars
The foundational tenets of Islam are categorized differently within the Sunni and Shia traditions, reflecting distinct theological emphases. Sunnis primarily organize obligatory practice around the Five Pillars of Islam (Arkān al-Islām), while Shia theology articulates a complementary structure of Roots of Religion (Usūl al-Dīn) governing belief and Branches of Religion (Furūʿ al-Dīn) governing practice. These frameworks, while differing in nomenclature and some specifics, share the common purpose of guiding a Muslim's worship and ethical conduct.
Shia Islam: The Branches of Religion
Shia theology first establishes core doctrines through the Roots of Religion (Usūl al-Dīn): Tawhid (Oneness of God), Adl (Divine Justice), Nubuwwah (Prophethood), Imamah (Leadership of the Imams), and Qiyamah (Resurrection). Derived from these beliefs are the practical ordinances known as the Branches of Religion (Furūʿ al-Dīn). While the list varies slightly among scholars, the ten commonly accepted branches in Twelver jurisprudence are:
Salah (Prayer)
Sawm (Fasting)
Hajj (Pilgrimage)
Zakat (Almsgiving)
Khums (One-Fifth Levy): An annual payment of 20% on surplus income and certain other forms of wealth, distributed between the descendants of the Prophet and religious authorities.
Jihad (Struggle): Primarily understood as an internal spiritual struggle (jihad al-akbar) and, under strictly defined conditions, an external defensive effort (jihad al-asghar).
Amr bi'l-maʿrūf (Enjoining Good): The duty to promote virtuous conduct.
Nahy ʿan al-munkar (Forbidding Wrong): The duty to discourage sinful conduct.
Tawalla (Loving the Ahl al-Bayt): Expressing love and allegiance to the family of the Prophet.
Tabarra (Dissociation): Disassociating from the enemies of the Prophet's family (Momen, 1985).[5]
The first four branches correspond directly to the Sunni pillars (though with some juristic differences in detail), while the latter six incorporate obligations that emphasize social justice, moral community, and the distinctive Shia doctrine of Imamah.
Sunni Islam: The Five Pillars
In Sunni Islam, the Five Pillars constitute the essential and universally obligatory framework of worship and practice for all competent adults. They are enumerated as follows:
Shahada (Testimony of Faith): The declaration, "I bear witness that there is no god but God (Allah), and I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." Salah (Prayer): Performing the five prescribed daily prayers. Zakat (Almsgiving): Giving an annual charity of 2.5% on surplus wealth above a minimum threshold (nisab) to specified categories of recipients. Sawm (Fasting): Abstaining from food, drink, and marital relations from dawn to sunset during the month of Ramadan. Hajj (Pilgrimage): Undertaking the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime for those who are physically and financially able (Denny, 2010).[6] These pillars represent the core acts of worship (ibadah) that structure a Muslim's relationship with God and society, emphasizing both personal devotion and social responsibility.
Scripture: The Quran
The Quran (القرآن, "the recitation") is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is divided into 114 chapters (suras), which are further divided into verses (ayahs). The Quran covers a wide range of topics, including theology, law, narratives of earlier prophets, ethics, and eschatology. Muslims consider its Arabic text to be the literal word of God, inimitable and preserved from corruption (Nasr, 2015).[7] The Quran is supplemented by the Hadith, which are collections of reports detailing the sayings, actions, and approvals of Muhammad, forming the basis of the Sunnah.
Shia View: Shia Islam holds the same Quran as canonical but maintains that certain verses were revealed concerning the status of Ali and the Imams. They also rely on distinct collections of Hadith, primarily narrated through the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt, which form their Sunnah. While there have been historical claims of textual variations, mainstream Shia scholarship agrees on the integrity and completeness of the Uthmanic codex, differing only in the interpretation (ta'wil) of certain verses (Ayoub, 1988).[8]
History
Origins in Arabia (610–632 CE) Islam emerged in the 7th century CE in the commercial city of Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula. In 610 CE, Muhammad, then a merchant aged 40, began receiving revelations. He started preaching monotheism, social justice, and the coming Day of Judgment, attracting followers but facing persecution from Mecca's polytheistic elite. In 622 CE, he and his followers migrated to Medina (an event known as the Hijrah), which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad established a socio-political community (Ummah). After a series of military conflicts, he eventually conquered Mecca in 630 CE, clearing the Kaaba of idols. By his death in 632 CE, most of Arabia had embraced Islam (Armstrong, 1992).[9]
Succession crisis and the Sunni-Shia divide
The death of Prophet Muhammad precipitated a crisis over leadership (Succession to Muhammad). A gathering at Saqifah resulted in the selection of Abu Bakr as the first Caliph. This was accepted by the majority who would become Sunnis, who believe the community had the right to choose its leader.
The Shia perspective holds that Muhammad had explicitly appointed his cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor at the event of Ghadir Khumm. They believe leadership was a divine right designated for Ali and his descendants through Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter. The rejection of this appointment is viewed by Shias as a deviation from the Prophet's will and the beginning of the community's tribulation. The first three caliphates (Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman) are seen as usurpations, though respected as historical figures and companions (Jafri, 1979).[10]
Early Islamic rule and the martyrdom of Husayn (632–750 CE)
Sunni narrative
The Rashidun ("Rightly Guided") Caliphs (632–661) oversaw the rapid expansion of Islam. This was followed by the Umayyad (661–750) and then the Abbasid (750–1258) caliphates, which established major Islamic empires.
Shia narrative
Shia history focuses on the persecution of the Ahl al-Bayt. Ali briefly became the fourth caliph (656–661) after Uthman's assassination, but his rule was challenged, leading to the First Fitna (civil war). His assassination marked the beginning of the Umayyad rule under Mu'awiya I. The pivotal event for Shias was the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), where Ali's son Husayn and his small band of followers were massacred by the Umayyad army of Yazid I. This martyrdom is commemorated during Muharram and solidified Shi'ism as a distinct movement of protest and suffering (Ayoub, 1978).[11] The subsequent Imams lived mostly under political oppression, with the twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, entering occultation (ghaybah) in 874 CE.
Medieval period to modernity (750 CE–present) Both traditions share in the narrative of the "Islamic Golden Age" under the Abbasids and later empires like the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal. The Safavid dynasty's conversion of Iran to Twelver Shi'ism in the 16th century was a watershed moment, creating a major Shia political and cultural power (Lapidus, 2014).[12]
The modern era saw the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate (1924), colonialism, and the rise of nation-states. For Shias, the 20th century included political mobilization and the seminal Iranian Revolution (1979), which established an Islamic Republic based on the Shia concept of the Wilayat al-Faqih (Guardianship of the Jurist).
Demographics == Islam is the majority religion in approximately 50 countries. Sunni Islam constitutes about 85–90% of Muslims globally, while Shia Islam constitutes 10–15%, with significant populations in Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, and Lebanon. The country with the largest Muslim population overall is Indonesia, a Sunni-majority nation (Pew Research Center, 2011).[13]
Schools of thought and sects
Sunni Islam Sunni Islam is the largest denomination. Sunnis emphasize the authority of the Quran, the Sunnah, and consensus (ijma) of the community. They follow one of four major schools (madhhab) of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi‘i, and Hanbali.
Shia Islam Shia Islam is the second-largest denomination. The largest branch is Twelver Shi'ism, which believes in a line of twelve Imams. Other branches include Isma'ilism (Seveners) and Zaidism (Fivers), each with different successions after the early Imams.
Other groups Other significant denominations include the Kharijites, whose sole surviving branch is Ibadi Islam, and movements like the Ahmadiyya and the Nation of Islam, whose Islamic classification is disputed by mainstream Muslim scholars.
Culture and law
Islamic culture and Islamic law (Sharia) are deeply intertwined. Sharia, derived from the Quran and Sunnah and interpreted by Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), governs many aspects of Muslim life. Sunni and Shia traditions have developed their own distinct legal schools (madhahib). Islamic art, architecture, literature, and music have made profound contributions to world heritage, often characterized by an emphasis on calligraphy, geometric patterns, and aniconism (Brend, 1991).[14]
Contemporary issues
Muslim communities today engage with a wide array of contemporary issues, including debates on:
The relationship between Islam and democracy
Islamic feminism and women's rights
Religious pluralism and intra-Islamic (Sunni-Shia) dialogue and tensions
Extremism and terrorism, often associated with groups like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, which are widely condemned by Muslim scholars and organizations.
See also
Index of Islam-related articles
References
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedPew2020 - ↑ Esposito, J. L. (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam. Oxford University Press.
- ↑ Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press.
- ↑ Brown, D. W. (2009). A New Introduction to Islam (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
- ↑ Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press.
- ↑ Denny, F. M. (2010). An Introduction to Islam (4th ed.). Pearson.
- ↑ Nasr, S. H. (Ed.). (2015). The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary. HarperOne.
- ↑ Ayoub, M. M. (1988). The Quran and Its Interpreters, Volume II: The House of 'Imran. State University of New York Press.
- ↑ Armstrong, K. (1992). Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. HarperSanFrancisco.
- ↑ Jafri, S. H. M. (1979). The Origins and Early Development of Shi'a Islam. Longman.
- ↑ Ayoub, M. (1978). Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism. Mouton Publishers.
- ↑ Lapidus, I. M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- ↑ Pew Research Center. (2011). The Future of the Global Muslim Population. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population/
- ↑ Brend, B. (1991). Islamic Art. Harvard University Press.
External links
Islam – Encyclopædia Britannica
Al-Islam.org – A comprehensive digital library on Islam, with a focus on Shia scholarship