Middle East
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Template:Short description Template:Infobox region
The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt, also encompassing parts of North Africa and, at times, Southwest Asia. It is located at the juncture of Eurasia, Africa, and the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean basins. The term is largely a geopolitical construct that gained prominence in the early 20th century, superseding the earlier term "Near East" (Lewis, 1995).[1] The region is historically the cradle of several ancient civilizations and the birthplace of the Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Etymology and definition
The term "Middle East" was first used systematically in 1902 by American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan to designate the area between Arabia and India. It was later adopted by the British military and government and became standard during World War II (Koppes, 1976).[2]
There is no single definitive boundary. Core countries universally included are Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. The region often overlaps with or is grouped with North Africa in the term "Middle East and North Africa" (MENA).
History
Ancient civilizations
The Middle East is home to some of the world's earliest civilizations, including Mesopotamia (Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria) between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and Ancient Egypt along the Nile. The region saw the rise of the Persian Empire, Phoenicia, and the Hittites (Cline & Graham, 2011).[3]
Rise of Islam and caliphates
In the 7th century CE, Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula under the prophet Muhammad. The subsequent Arab conquests and the establishment of the Rashidun, Umayyad, and Abbasid Caliphates unified the region under Islamic rule, creating centers of learning, science, and culture in cities like Baghdad and Damascus (Kennedy, 2004).[4]
Ottoman and European rule
From the early 16th century, much of the Arab world was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. Following its dissolution after World War I, the modern state system was largely shaped by the Sykes–Picot Agreement, with Britain and France establishing mandates and protectorates (Fromkin, 2009).[5] This period also saw the emergence of Zionism and the Balfour Declaration, leading to the eventual establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.
Post-colonial era and conflicts
The post-World War II era was marked by the rise of Arab nationalism, the Arab–Israeli conflict, the Iranian Revolution of 1979, and the Gulf Wars. The 21st century has been defined by the Iraq War, the Arab Spring uprisings, and the subsequent civil wars in Syria and Yemen (Gelvin, 2020).[6]
Geography and climate
The region is predominantly arid, dominated by deserts like the Arabian Desert, Syrian Desert, and Dasht-e Kavir in Iran. Major mountain ranges include the Zagros Mountains (Iran), Taurus Mountains (Turkey), and the Atlas Mountains (North Africa). Key waterways include the Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, and Jordan Rivers, as well as strategic chokepoints like the Suez Canal, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Bosporus (Beaumont, Blake, & Wagstaff, 2016).[7]
Demographics and religion
The Middle East has a population of approximately 490 million. The largest ethnic groups are Arabs, Persians, Turks, Kurds, and Azerbaijanis. The dominant religion is Islam, with major Sunni and Shia branches. Significant religious minorities include Christians, Jews, Druze, Yazidis, Mandaeans, and Baháʼís (Pew Research Center, 2012).[8]
Politics and economy
Government forms
The region features diverse political systems, including constitutional republics (Turkey, Iran), absolute monarchies (Saudi Arabia, Oman), constitutional monarchies (Jordan, Kuwait), and parliamentary democracies (Israel). Authoritarian governance is common.
Oil and economy
The Middle East holds about half of the world's proven oil reserves and a significant portion of natural gas reserves, making it a central player in the global energy market. Major producers include Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, the UAE, and Kuwait. Wealth distribution is uneven, and many economies face challenges of diversification, youth unemployment, and water scarcity (Yergin, 2008).[9]
Culture
The Middle East possesses a rich and diverse cultural heritage, being the birthplace of writing, law codes, and major monotheistic religions.
Language: Arabic, Persian, and Turkish are the primary literary and cultural languages.
Literature: Famous works include the Arabic One Thousand and One Nights, the Persian Shahnameh by Ferdowsi, and the poetry of Rumi and Hafez.
Cuisine: Staple foods include wheat (bread), rice, legumes, and lamb. Iconic dishes include hummus, falafel, kebabs, and baklava.
Religion: Islamic art and architecture, with features like calligraphy, geometric patterns, and mosques with domes and minarets, are dominant cultural expressions.
Contemporary issues
Key ongoing issues include:
The Israeli–Palestinian conflict
Regional rivalry between Saudi Arabia and Iran
Political instability and civil war (Syria, Yemen, Libya)
Human rights and political freedoms
Refugee crises and displacement
Economic diversification and climate change pressures, particularly on water resources
See also
List of conflicts in the Middle East
References
- ↑ Lewis, B. (1995). The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years. Scribner.
- ↑ Koppes, C. R. (1976). Captain Mahan, General Gordon, and the Origins of the Term "Middle East". Middle Eastern Studies, 12(1), 95–98.
- ↑ Cline, E. H., & Graham, M. W. (2011). Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press.
- ↑ Kennedy, H. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Pearson/Longman.
- ↑ Fromkin, D. (2009). A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East (20th Anniversary ed.). Holt Paperbacks.
- ↑ Gelvin, J. L. (2020). The Modern Middle East: A History (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.
- ↑ Beaumont, P., Blake, G. H., & Wagstaff, J. M. (2016). The Middle East: A Geographical Study (2nd ed.). Routledge.
- ↑ Pew Research Center. (2012, December 18). The Global Religious Landscape. https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/
- ↑ Yergin, D. (2008). The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power (New ed.). Free Press.
External links
Middle East – Encyclopædia Britannica
Middle East & North Africa – World Bank
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