Sunni–Shia relations

The Sunni–Shia divide is the largest and most enduring division within Islam. It originated from a political and religious dispute over the rightful successor (caliph) to the Islamic prophet Muhammad following his death in 632 CE (BBC, 2009). Over centuries, this initial political rift evolved into distinct theological, legal, and spiritual traditions. While Sunnis and Shias share fundamental Islamic beliefs, their differences have shaped the political and religious landscape of the Muslim world for over 1,400 years, influencing modern geopolitics.

Origins and historical development

Succession crisis

The divide originated immediately after Muhammad's death. The majority of his companions supported Abu Bakr, Muhammad's close friend and father-in-law, to become the first caliph as a leader elected by the community. This group would become known as Sunnis, meaning followers of the Prophet's example (sunnah).

A smaller group believed leadership should remain within Muhammad's family, specifically with his cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib. This group became known as Shia, a contraction of Shiat Ali (the Party of Ali) (Nasr, 2006). For Shia Muslims, Ali was the first legitimate Imam (a divinely appointed and sinless leader).

Early battles and martyrdom

The political dispute led to a series of civil wars (fitnas). The Battle of Karbala in 680 CE was a pivotal event, where Ali's son Husayn and his followers were massacred by the army of the Umayyad caliph Yazid I. The martyrdom of Husayn cemented Shi'ism as a distinct movement centered on themes of sacrifice, justice, and the leadership of the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's household) (Ayoub, 1978).

Theological and doctrinal differences

Leadership (Imamate vs. Caliphate)

The core difference lies in the concept of religious authority.

Sunni view: The caliph is a political and administrative leader, selected by the community based on merit and consensus. Religious authority derives from the Qur'an, the Prophet's example (Sunnah), and the consensus of scholars (ulama).

Shia view: The Imam is a spiritual and political leader appointed by God through the Prophet. Imams from Muhammad's lineage possess divine knowledge, infallibility (ismah), and are necessary guides for interpreting Islamic law and theology. This is central to Twelver Shi'ism, the largest Shia branch (Sachedina, 1981).

Religious practices and law

While ritual prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage are shared, differences exist:

Prayer: Shias often combine noon and afternoon, and evening and night prayers. Slight differences in prayer postures exist.

Jurisprudence: Sunnis follow one of four major schools of law (Madhhabs). Shias follow the Ja'fari school, which gives greater weight to the teachings of the Imams.

Temporary marriage (Nikah mut'ah): Practiced by some Shia communities but rejected by Sunnis.

Commemoration of Ashura: Shias observe the day of Husayn's martyrdom with mourning rituals, including passion plays and processions, which are less emphasized in Sunni practice.

Demographics and distribution

Global populations

Sunnis constitute approximately 85–90% of the global Muslim population, while Shias make up about 10–15% (Pew Research Center, 2009).

Major Shia-majority countries

Iran (Shia Islam is the state religion)

Iraq

Azerbaijan

Bahrain (though ruled by a Sunni monarchy)

Large Shia minorities exist in Lebanon, Yemen, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan.

Sunni-majority regions

The majority of the Muslim world is Sunni, including most of the Arab world (e.g., Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia), Turkey, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and much of Africa.

Modern political and geopolitical dimensions

Historical coexistence

For much of history, Sunni and Shia communities lived in relative coexistence, with theological debates largely confined to scholarly circles. Sectarian identity was often less significant than tribal, ethnic, or local affiliations.

Rise of sectarianism in the 20th–21st centuries

Modern politics, colonialism, and state competition have politicized the divide:

1979 Iranian Revolution: The establishment of a Shia theocracy in Iran presented a revolutionary model that challenged Sunni-majority monarchies in the Gulf, particularly Saudi Arabia (Nasr, 2006).

Iran–Saudi Arabia rivalry: This geopolitical struggle for regional influence is often framed along sectarian lines, with both states supporting proxy groups in conflicts in Yemen, Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon (Gause, 2014).

2003 Iraq War: The overthrow of Saddam Hussein's Sunni-led regime and the establishment of a Shia-majority government intensified sectarian violence and identity politics in Iraq and the region.

Syrian Civil War: The conflict took on a sectarian dimension, with the Alawite (a Shia-derived sect)-led government of Bashar al-Assad backed by Iran and Shia militias, while many Sunni rebel groups received support from Sunni-majority states.

Contemporary relations and dialogue

Tensions and conflict

Sectarian rhetoric and violence have been fueled by extremist groups like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State (ISIS), which espouse anti-Shia ideologies and have targeted Shia communities. State-level discrimination against Shia minorities in some countries also persists.

Calls for unity and ecumenism Many Muslim leaders and scholars from both traditions emphasize common ground and call for intra-Muslim unity (taqrib). Institutions like Egypt's Al-Azhar University have engaged in formal dialogues with Shia scholars. Shared challenges and the need for pan-Islamic cooperation are often cited as reasons to bridge the divide (BBC, 2007).

See also

Ahl al-Bayt

Battle of Karbala

Caliphate

Imamate in Shia doctrine

Islamic schools and branches

Kharijites

List of Islamic dynasties

Succession to Muhammad

External links

The Sunni-Shia Divide - Council on Foreign Relations

Global Muslim Population - Pew Research Center