Islam

Islam (Template:Lang-ar) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, the religion's founder and the final prophet and messenger of God (Allah). Adherents of Islam, called Muslims, believe that the Quran is the verbatim word of God as revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. Muslims consider Muhammad, through his teachings and normative example (the Sunnah), to be the perfect model for human life. Islam is the world's second-largest religion, with approximately 1.9 billion followers, known as Muslims, constituting about 25% of the global population (Pew Research Center, 2020).

Etymology and meaning

The word "Islam" is derived from the Arabic root s-l-m (س ل م), which carries meanings of peace, purity, submission, and surrender. In a religious context, it means "voluntary submission to the will of God (Allah)" (Esposito, 2002). A follower of Islam is called a Muslim (مُسْلِم), meaning "one who submits (to God)."

Beliefs

The core beliefs of Islam are articulated in the articles of faith (ʿAqīdah). While Sunnis and Shias share fundamental beliefs, there are distinct emphases and additions within Shia theology.

Shia principles of religion Shia theology incorporates the above but structures its creed around Five Principles of Religion (Usul al-Din), which place particular emphasis on divine justice and divinely appointed leadership:

Tawhid (Oneness of God)

Adl (Divine Justice): This is a distinct, emphasized principle in Shia theology, asserting that God is inherently just and does not commit evil. Human free will is necessary for this justice to be meaningful.

Nubuwwah (Prophethood)

Imamah (Leadership of the Imams): This is the core point of divergence from Sunni Islam. Shias believe that after Muhammad, God appointed a succession of infallible Imams from his progeny (the Ahl al-Bayt) to lead the Muslim community in spiritual and temporal matters, providing authoritative interpretation of the Quran and Sunnah. For Twelver Shi'ism, these are twelve Imams.

Qiyamah (Day of Resurrection) (Momen, 1985).

Belief in the angels and holy books is included within these principles.

Sunni articles of faith In Sunni Islam, the foundational creed is based on six core beliefs:

Oneness of God (Tawhid): The absolute, uncompromising monotheism that God is one (Al-ʾAḥad) and unique (Al-Wāḥid). Associating partners with God (shirk) is the gravest sin.

Angels (Malāʾikah): Belief in angels, created from light, who are unseen beings that carry out God's commands.

Prophets and Messengers (Rusul wa Anbiyāʾ): God has sent prophets and messengers to every nation, beginning with Adam and including Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and culminating in Muhammad, who is the "Seal of the Prophets" (Khatam an-Nabiyyin).

Revealed Books (Kutub): Belief in the divine scriptures revealed to various prophets, including the Torah (Tawrat) to Moses, the Psalms (Zabur) to David, the Gospel (Injil) to Jesus, and the Quran to Muhammad. Muslims believe the Quran is the final, unaltered, and perfect revelation.

Day of Resurrection and Judgment (Yawm al-Qiyāmah): Belief in an afterlife where all humans will be resurrected and held accountable for their deeds, leading to eternal paradise (Jannah) or hell (Jahannam).

Divine Decree (Qadr): Belief that everything, good and evil, occurs by the will and knowledge of God, though humans possess free will and are responsible for their choices (Brown, 2009).

Practices: The Five Pillars

The core religious practices of Islam are encapsulated in the Five Pillars of Islam (Arkān al-Islām), which are considered obligatory for all able Muslims. While the pillars are shared, there are minor differences in interpretation and practice between Sunni and Shia traditions.

Shahada (Profession of Faith): The fundamental declaration: "I bear witness that there is no god but God (Allah), and I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of God."

Sunni practice: This statement alone constitutes the Shahada.

Shia practice: While the above is the core of the pillar, it is common in Shia tradition to add, "And I bear witness that Ali is the friend of God (Wali Allah) and the successor of the Prophet." This addition affirms belief in the Imamate but is not considered a part of the formal, obligatory pillar for the validity of one's Islam.

Salah (Prayer): Performing the five daily ritual prayers at prescribed times while facing the Kaaba in Mecca.

Sunni practice: Prayers are performed at five distinct times (Fajr, Dhuhr, Asr, Maghrib, Isha). The call to prayer (Adhan) includes specific phrases.

Shia practice: Permits the combination of Dhuhr and Asr prayers, and Maghrib and Isha prayers, so they may be performed during three time slots. The Shia Adhan includes the phrase "I bear witness that Ali is the friend of God" (Ashhadu anna Aliyyan waliyyullah). Minor differences exist in prayer postures, such as placing hands at the sides during standing and the use of a turbah (clay tablet) for prostration (Nasr, 2013).

Zakat (Almsgiving): Giving a portion of one's wealth to the poor and needy.

Sunni practice: Zakat is an annual payment of 2.5% on most forms of saved wealth above a minimum threshold (nisab).

Shia practice: Also obligates Zakat. Additionally, Shias practice Khums ("one-fifth"), which is a separate, obligatory annual levy of 20% on surplus income and certain other forms of wealth. Half of Khums (Sahm al-Imam) is given to a living Islamic jurist (Marja) for religious and charitable purposes, while the other half (Sahm al-Sadat) is for descendants of the Prophet (Momen, 1985).

Sawm (Fasting): Abstaining from food, drink, and sexual relations from dawn to sunset during the month of Ramadan.

Both Sunni and Shia Muslims observe this pillar. A minor difference is the timing for ending the fast (Iftar). Sunnis generally break the fast when the sun has completely set, while Shias wait until the redness of the eastern sky has vanished. The additional fasts and specific devotional practices during Ramadan may also differ.

Hajj (Pilgrimage): Undertaking a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime for those who are physically and financially capable.

The core rituals (Tawaf, Sa'i, standing at Arafat, etc.) are identical for both. Shia pilgrims often incorporate visits to the tombs of Imams in Medina (Al-Baqi' Cemetery) and Iraq (Najaf, Karbala) as part of a broader pilgrimage (Ziyarat). Some jurisprudential details, such as the type of footwear worn during certain rites, may differ (Denny, 2010).

Scripture: The Quran

The Quran (القرآن, "the recitation") is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is divided into 114 chapters (suras), which are further divided into verses (ayahs). The Quran covers a wide range of topics, including theology, law, narratives of earlier prophets, ethics, and eschatology. Muslims consider its Arabic text to be the literal word of God, inimitable and preserved from corruption (Nasr, 2015). The Quran is supplemented by the Hadith, which are collections of reports detailing the sayings, actions, and approvals of Muhammad, forming the basis of the Sunnah.

Shia View: Shia Islam holds the same Quran as canonical but maintains that certain verses were revealed concerning the status of Ali and the Imams. They also rely on distinct collections of Hadith, primarily narrated through the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt, which form their Sunnah. While there have been historical claims of textual variations, mainstream Shia scholarship agrees on the integrity and completeness of the Uthmanic codex, differing only in the interpretation (ta'wil) of certain verses (Ayoub, 1988).

History

Origins in Arabia (610–632 CE) Islam emerged in the 7th century CE in the commercial city of Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula. In 610 CE, Muhammad, then a merchant aged 40, began receiving revelations. He started preaching monotheism, social justice, and the coming Day of Judgment, attracting followers but facing persecution from Mecca's polytheistic elite. In 622 CE, he and his followers migrated to Medina (an event known as the Hijrah), which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad established a socio-political community (Ummah). After a series of military conflicts, he eventually conquered Mecca in 630 CE, clearing the Kaaba of idols. By his death in 632 CE, most of Arabia had embraced Islam (Armstrong, 1992).

Succession crisis and the Sunni-Shia divide

The death of Prophet Muhammad precipitated a crisis over leadership (Succession to Muhammad). A gathering at Saqifah resulted in the selection of Abu Bakr as the first Caliph. This was accepted by the majority who would become Sunnis, who believe the community had the right to choose its leader.

The Shia perspective holds that Muhammad had explicitly appointed his cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor at the event of Ghadir Khumm. They believe leadership was a divine right designated for Ali and his descendants through Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter. The rejection of this appointment is viewed by Shias as a deviation from the Prophet's will and the beginning of the community's tribulation. The first three caliphates (Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman) are seen as usurpations, though respected as historical figures and companions (Jafri, 1979).

Early Islamic rule and the martyrdom of Husayn (632–750 CE)

Sunni narrative

The Rashidun ("Rightly Guided") Caliphs (632–661) oversaw the rapid expansion of Islam. This was followed by the Umayyad (661–750) and then the Abbasid (750–1258) caliphates, which established major Islamic empires.

Shia narrative

Shia history focuses on the persecution of the Ahl al-Bayt. Ali briefly became the fourth caliph (656–661) after Uthman's assassination, but his rule was challenged, leading to the First Fitna (civil war). His assassination marked the beginning of the Umayyad rule under Mu'awiya I. The pivotal event for Shias was the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), where Ali's son Husayn and his small band of followers were massacred by the Umayyad army of Yazid I. This martyrdom is commemorated during Muharram and solidified Shi'ism as a distinct movement of protest and suffering (Ayoub, 1978). The subsequent Imams lived mostly under political oppression, with the twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, entering occultation (ghaybah) in 874 CE.

Medieval period to modernity (750 CE–present) Both traditions share in the narrative of the "Islamic Golden Age" under the Abbasids and later empires like the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal. The Safavid dynasty's conversion of Iran to Twelver Shi'ism in the 16th century was a watershed moment, creating a major Shia political and cultural power (Lapidus, 2014).

The modern era saw the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate (1924), colonialism, and the rise of nation-states. For Shias, the 20th century included political mobilization and the seminal Iranian Revolution (1979), which established an Islamic Republic based on the Shia concept of the Wilayat al-Faqih (Guardianship of the Jurist).

Demographics == Islam is the majority religion in approximately 50 countries. Sunni Islam constitutes about 85–90% of Muslims globally, while Shia Islam constitutes 10–15%, with significant populations in Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, and Lebanon. The country with the largest Muslim population overall is Indonesia, a Sunni-majority nation (Pew Research Center, 2011).

Schools of thought and sects

Sunni Islam Sunni Islam is the largest denomination. Sunnis emphasize the authority of the Quran, the Sunnah, and consensus (ijma) of the community. They follow one of four major schools (madhhab) of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi‘i, and Hanbali.

Shia Islam Shia Islam is the second-largest denomination. The largest branch is Twelver Shi'ism, which believes in a line of twelve Imams. Other branches include Isma'ilism (Seveners) and Zaidism (Fivers), each with different successions after the early Imams.

Other groups Other significant denominations include the Kharijites, whose sole surviving branch is Ibadi Islam, and movements like the Ahmadiyya and the Nation of Islam, whose Islamic classification is disputed by mainstream Muslim scholars.

Culture and law

Islamic culture and Islamic law (Sharia) are deeply intertwined. Sharia, derived from the Quran and Sunnah and interpreted by Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), governs many aspects of Muslim life. Sunni and Shia traditions have developed their own distinct legal schools (madhahib). Islamic art, architecture, literature, and music have made profound contributions to world heritage, often characterized by an emphasis on calligraphy, geometric patterns, and aniconism (Brend, 1991).

Contemporary issues

Muslim communities today engage with a wide array of contemporary issues, including debates on:

The relationship between Islam and democracy

Islamic feminism and women's rights

Islam and modernity

Islam and science

Religious pluralism and intra-Islamic (Sunni-Shia) dialogue and tensions

Extremism and terrorism, often associated with groups like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, which are widely condemned by Muslim scholars and organizations.

See also

Glossary of Islam

Index of Islam-related articles

Islam by country

Islamophobia

List of Islamic texts

Outline of Islam

Spread of Islam

Timeline of Islamic history

World Muslim Congress

External links

Islam – Encyclopædia Britannica

Al-Islam.org – A comprehensive digital library on Islam, with a focus on Shia scholarship