Iranian Revolution of 1979 from Western intellectuals: Difference between revisions
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The '''Iranian Revolution of 1979''' attracted significant attention from Western | The '''Iranian Revolution of 1979''' attracted significant attention from Western intellectuals, some of whom expressed admiration for [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini]] and the movement that overthrew Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran. This phenomenon was most pronounced among Left-wing politics|left-wing and Postmodernism/postmodern European thinkers, who viewed the revolution as a form of anti-imperialist resistance and a novel "political spirituality" that offered an alternative to both Western liberal democracy and Soviet-type system/Soviet Marxism (Afary & Anderson, 2005, pp. 9-12). However, most of these early endorsements were later reassessed or retracted as the Islamic Republic of Iran/theocratic nature of the new regime became apparent ("Trusting Khomeini," 2026). | ||
== Michel Foucault and "Political Spirituality" == | == Michel Foucault and "Political Spirituality" == | ||
The most prominent Western intellectual to engage with the Iranian Revolution was the French philosopher | The most prominent Western intellectual to engage with the Iranian Revolution was the French philosopher Michel Foucault. Between September 1978 and April 1979, Foucault worked as a special correspondent for the Italian newspaper ''Corriere della Sera'' and the French journal ''Le Nouvel Observateur'', traveling to Iran and writing a series of firsthand reports (Library of Congress, n.d.). | ||
=== Concept of Political Spirituality === | === Concept of Political Spirituality === | ||
Foucault was captivated by what he called "political spirituality" (''spiritualité politique''). He argued that the Iranian people were engaged in a metaphysical uprising against the "spiritlessness" of modern global systems | Foucault was captivated by what he called "political spirituality" (''spiritualité politique''). He argued that the Iranian people were engaged in a metaphysical uprising against the "spiritlessness" of modern global systems (Jung, 2022). Rejecting the [[Marxist]] view that "religion is the opium of the people," Foucault asserted that in [[Shia Islam|Shi'a Islam]], religion had historically served as "an instrument of political resistance" (Ghamari-Tabrizi, 2016, pp. 65-72). | ||
In a March 1979 interview, Foucault explained the revolutionary consciousness he observed in Tehran: | In a March 1979 interview, Foucault explained the revolutionary consciousness he observed in Tehran: | ||
{{blockquote|"In rising up, the Iranians said to themselves... 'we have to change ourselves. Our way of being, our relationship with others, with things, with eternity, with God, etc., must be completely changed, and there will only be a true revolution if this radical change in our experience takes place | {{blockquote|"In rising up, the Iranians said to themselves... 'we have to change ourselves. Our way of being, our relationship with others, with things, with eternity, with God, etc., must be completely changed, and there will only be a true revolution if this radical change in our experience takes place'" (Ghamari-Tabrizi, 2016, p. 68).}} | ||
Foucault viewed Khomeini not as a reactionary cleric but as a symbolic figure representing the unified will of the Iranian people against the Shah's regime. | Foucault viewed Khomeini not as a reactionary cleric but as a symbolic figure representing the unified will of the Iranian people against the Shah's regime (Afary & Anderson, 2005, pp. 110-115). | ||
=== Critical Reassessment === | === Critical Reassessment === | ||
Foucault's writings on Iran have been extensively criticized by subsequent scholars. [[Janet Afary]] and [[Kevin B. Anderson]], in their 2005 book ''Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism'', argue that Foucault's [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]] framework and his "search for political spirituality" blinded him to the [[Gender apartheid|gender-based violence]] and authoritarian tendencies of the emerging theocracy | Foucault's writings on Iran have been extensively criticized by subsequent scholars. [[Janet Afary]] and [[Kevin B. Anderson]], in their 2005 book ''Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism'', argue that Foucault's [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]] framework and his "search for political spirituality" blinded him to the [[Gender apartheid|gender-based violence]] and authoritarian tendencies of the emerging theocracy (Carrette, 2006, p. 531-533). Afary and Anderson (2005) suggest that his Iranian writings "express characteristic aspects of Foucault's worldview" and reflect a deeper problem within his intellectual project (p. 4). Similarly, contemporary postcolonial critics have argued that Foucault's enthusiasm for the revolution represented a form of "revolutionary exoticism" that projected Western intellectual desires onto a non-Western movement he did not fully understand (Zamani, 2025). | ||
== Richard Falk and "Trusting Khomeini" == | == Richard Falk and "Trusting Khomeini" == | ||
In the United States, [[Richard Falk]], then a professor of international law at [[Princeton University]], became a notable voice of support for the new Iranian leadership. On 16 February 1979, just days after Khomeini's return from exile, ''[[The New York Times]]'' published Falk's op-ed under the headline "Trusting Khomeini | In the United States, [[Richard Falk]], then a professor of international law at [[Princeton University]], became a notable voice of support for the new Iranian leadership. On 16 February 1979, just days after Khomeini's return from exile, ''[[The New York Times]]'' published Falk's op-ed under the headline "Trusting Khomeini" (Stephens, 2011). | ||
=== Arguments in the 1979 Article === | === Arguments in the 1979 Article === | ||
Falk wrote that "The depiction of [Khomeini] as fanatical, reactionary and the bearer of crude prejudices seems certainly and happily false." He described Khomeini's close advisers as "uniformly composed of moderate, progressive individuals" and predicted that the Ayatollah would serve primarily as a moral guide—a "spiritual pope" rather than a day-to-day political ruler. Falk concluded that Iran "may yet provide us with a desperately needed model of humane governance for a third-world country | Falk wrote that "The depiction of [Khomeini] as fanatical, reactionary and the bearer of crude prejudices seems certainly and happily false." He described Khomeini's close advisers as "uniformly composed of moderate, progressive individuals" and predicted that the Ayatollah would serve primarily as a moral guide—a "spiritual pope" rather than a day-to-day political ruler. Falk concluded that Iran "may yet provide us with a desperately needed model of humane governance for a third-world country" (Stephens, 2011; "Trusting Khomeini," 2026). | ||
=== Later Revisions === | === Later Revisions === | ||
In subsequent decades, Falk acknowledged that his predictions had been incorrect. He stated that the ''New York Times'' headline had not been his choice and that he had underestimated the speed and ruthlessness with which clerical authority would consolidate power. Falk later described Khomeini as having a "rigid, uncompromising vision" rather than functioning as a symbolic religious figure, conceding that expectations of political pluralism proved "misplaced | In subsequent decades, Falk acknowledged that his predictions had been incorrect. He stated that the ''New York Times'' headline had not been his choice and that he had underestimated the speed and ruthlessness with which clerical authority would consolidate power. Falk later described Khomeini as having a "rigid, uncompromising vision" rather than functioning as a symbolic religious figure, conceding that expectations of political pluralism proved "misplaced" ("Trusting Khomeini," 2026). | ||
== Sartre, de Beauvoir, and the French Left == | == Sartre, de Beauvoir, and the French Left == | ||
[[Jean-Paul Sartre]], the leading figure of [[existentialism]], also supported the Iranian Revolution. He traveled to Tehran to express solidarity with the revolutionaries and used his publication ''[[Les Temps Modernes]]'' to legitimize the uprising against the Shah. | [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], the leading figure of [[existentialism]], also supported the Iranian Revolution. He traveled to Tehran to express solidarity with the revolutionaries and used his publication ''[[Les Temps Modernes]]'' to legitimize the uprising against the Shah (Afary & Anderson, 2005, pp. 92-95). | ||
[[Simone de Beauvoir]], Sartre's lifelong companion and a foundational figure in [[second-wave feminism]], initially supported the revolution's anti-imperialist objectives. According to the published collection of her feminist writings, de Beauvoir engaged in "activities in the services of causes like French divorce law reform and the rights of women in the Iranian Revolution | [[Simone de Beauvoir]], Sartre's lifelong companion and a foundational figure in [[second-wave feminism]], initially supported the revolution's anti-imperialist objectives. According to the published collection of her feminist writings, de Beauvoir engaged in "activities in the services of causes like French divorce law reform and the rights of women in the Iranian Revolution" (Beauvoir, 2015, p. xi). However, as the regime's systematic [[Compulsory veiling|enforcement of veiling]] and suppression of women's rights became evident, de Beauvoir and other feminists quickly distanced themselves from the revolution's outcome (Afary & Anderson, 2005, pp. 210-215). | ||
== Time Magazine's "Man of the Year" == | == Time Magazine's "Man of the Year" == | ||
In a reflection of the ambiguous Western reception of the revolution, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine named Khomeini its "[[Time Person of the Year|Man of the Year]]" for 1979. The magazine's profile acknowledged his controversial nature while noting the scale of his impact: "Rarely has so improbable a leader shaken the world," ''Time'' wrote | In a reflection of the ambiguous Western reception of the revolution, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine named Khomeini its "[[Time Person of the Year|Man of the Year]]" for 1979. The magazine's profile acknowledged his controversial nature while noting the scale of his impact: "Rarely has so improbable a leader shaken the world," ''Time'' wrote (Time Magazine, 2006). The accompanying piece noted Khomeini's interest in [[Greek philosophy]], particularly his admiration for [[Aristotle]], complicating Western narratives of the cleric as simply "fanatical" or "reactionary" (Time Magazine, 2006). | ||
== Scholarly Analysis and Legacy == | == Scholarly Analysis and Legacy == | ||
Scholars have identified several factors that contributed to Western intellectual enthusiasm for the Iranian Revolution. The [[Cold War]] context, disillusionment with the [[Soviet Union]] following the suppression of the [[Prague Spring]], and the [[Vietnam War]]-era critique of American imperialism all created a climate in which anti-Western movements were often uncritically embraced by segments of the Western left. | Scholars have identified several factors that contributed to Western intellectual enthusiasm for the Iranian Revolution. The [[Cold War]] context, disillusionment with the [[Soviet Union]] following the suppression of the [[Prague Spring]], and the [[Vietnam War]]-era critique of American imperialism all created a climate in which anti-Western movements were often uncritically embraced by segments of the Western left (Afary & Anderson, 2005, pp. 18-22). | ||
=== Critique of "Revolutionary Exoticism" === | === Critique of "Revolutionary Exoticism" === | ||
The phenomenon has been analyzed as an example of what some scholars call "revolutionary exoticism"—the tendency of Western intellectuals to romanticize political violence in non-Western societies as an authentic form of resistance untainted by Western materialism. | The phenomenon has been analyzed as an example of what some scholars call "revolutionary exoticism"—the tendency of Western intellectuals to romanticize political violence in non-Western societies as an authentic form of resistance untainted by Western materialism (Zamani, 2025). [[Bahar Zamani]] (2025), a postcolonial scholar at the [[Academy of Fine Arts Vienna]], argues that Foucault's reading of the revolution, in particular, "failed to account for the deep-rooted historical and cultural complexities of Iranian resistance" and represents the "limitations of Western philosophical interpretations of non-Western uprisings" (para. 8). | ||
=== Contemporary Relevance === | === Contemporary Relevance === | ||
The revival of these early Western endorsements has periodically occurred during subsequent moments of Iranian political upheaval, including the [[2009 Iranian presidential election protests|2009 Green Movement]] and the [[Mahsa Amini protests]] beginning in 2022. During the 2022–2024 protests, the 1979 "Trusting Khomeini" article resurfaced online as a cautionary example of how "opposition to an authoritarian regime does not automatically produce a more open or plural system | The revival of these early Western endorsements has periodically occurred during subsequent moments of Iranian political upheaval, including the [[2009 Iranian presidential election protests|2009 Green Movement]] and the [[Mahsa Amini protests]] beginning in 2022. During the 2022–2024 protests, the 1979 "Trusting Khomeini" article resurfaced online as a cautionary example of how "opposition to an authoritarian regime does not automatically produce a more open or plural system" ("Trusting Khomeini," 2026, para. 12). | ||
== See also == | == See also == | ||
| Line 63: | Line 63: | ||
{{reflist}} | {{reflist}} | ||
Afary, J., & Anderson, K. B. (2005). ''Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the seductions of Islamism''. University of Chicago Press. | |||
Beauvoir, S. de. (2015). In M. A. Simons & M. Timmermann (Eds.), ''Feminist writings''. University of Illinois Press. | |||
Carrette, J. (2006). [Review of the book ''Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the seductions of Islamism'', by J. Afary & K. B. Anderson]. ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'', ''74''(2), 531–533. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfj071 | |||
Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). ''Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution and the Enlightenment''. University of Minnesota Press. | |||
Jung, H. Y. (2022). Foucault's Iranian effect. ''KCI''. Retrieved from https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002815748 | |||
Library of Congress. (n.d.). Publisher description for ''Foucault and the Iranian Revolution''. Retrieved June 6, 2026, from https://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0617/2004024383-d.html | |||
Stephens, B. (2011, February 14). Understanding the Muslim Brotherhood. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Reprinted by History News Network. Retrieved from https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/bret-stephens-understanding-the-muslim-brotherhood | |||
Time Magazine. (2006, December 16). Ayatullah Khomeini: 1979. ''Time Magazine''. Retrieved from https://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2019712_2019694_2019594,00.html | |||
Trusting Khomeini: Old NYT article praising former Supreme Leader surfaces amid Iran protests. (2026, January 8). ''The Times of India''. Retrieved from https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/trusting-khomeini-old-nyt-article-praising-former-supreme-leader-surfaces-amid-iran-protests/articleshow/126434937.cms | |||
Zamani, B. (2025). ''Mapping otherness: A postcolonial critique of subjectivation processes in the West and the non-West'' [Research project description]. Academy of Fine Arts Vienna. Retrieved from https://www.akbild.ac.at/en/research/projects/research_grantees/2025/mapping-otherness-a-postcolonial-critique-of-subjectivation-processes-in-the-west-and-the-non-west | |||
== Further reading == | == Further reading == | ||
* | * Abrahamian, E. (1993). ''Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic''. University of California Press. | ||
* Dabashi, H. (1993). ''Theology of discontent: The ideological foundation of the Islamic Revolution in Iran''. New York University Press. | |||
* | |||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
| Line 75: | Line 93: | ||
* [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/trusting-khomeini-old-nyt-article-praising-former-supreme-leader-surfaces-amid-iran-protests/articleshow/126434937.cms "Trusting Khomeini: Old NYT article surfaces amid Iran protests"] – ''The Times of India'' (2026) | * [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/trusting-khomeini-old-nyt-article-praising-former-supreme-leader-surfaces-amid-iran-protests/articleshow/126434937.cms "Trusting Khomeini: Old NYT article surfaces amid Iran protests"] – ''The Times of India'' (2026) | ||
* [https://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2019712_2019694_2019594,00.html "Ayatullah Khomeini: 1979"] – ''Time Magazine'' Person of the Year profile | * [https://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2019712_2019694_2019594,00.html "Ayatullah Khomeini: 1979"] – ''Time Magazine'' Person of the Year profile | ||
[[Category:Iranian Revolution]] | [[Category:Iranian Revolution]] | ||
[[Category:Anti-imperialism]] | [[Category:Anti-imperialism]] | ||
Latest revision as of 11:54, 6 June 2026
The Iranian Revolution of 1979 attracted significant attention from Western intellectuals, some of whom expressed admiration for Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and the movement that overthrew Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran. This phenomenon was most pronounced among Left-wing politics|left-wing and Postmodernism/postmodern European thinkers, who viewed the revolution as a form of anti-imperialist resistance and a novel "political spirituality" that offered an alternative to both Western liberal democracy and Soviet-type system/Soviet Marxism (Afary & Anderson, 2005, pp. 9-12). However, most of these early endorsements were later reassessed or retracted as the Islamic Republic of Iran/theocratic nature of the new regime became apparent ("Trusting Khomeini," 2026).
Michel Foucault and "Political Spirituality"
The most prominent Western intellectual to engage with the Iranian Revolution was the French philosopher Michel Foucault. Between September 1978 and April 1979, Foucault worked as a special correspondent for the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera and the French journal Le Nouvel Observateur, traveling to Iran and writing a series of firsthand reports (Library of Congress, n.d.).
Concept of Political Spirituality
Foucault was captivated by what he called "political spirituality" (spiritualité politique). He argued that the Iranian people were engaged in a metaphysical uprising against the "spiritlessness" of modern global systems (Jung, 2022). Rejecting the Marxist view that "religion is the opium of the people," Foucault asserted that in Shi'a Islam, religion had historically served as "an instrument of political resistance" (Ghamari-Tabrizi, 2016, pp. 65-72).
In a March 1979 interview, Foucault explained the revolutionary consciousness he observed in Tehran:
Foucault viewed Khomeini not as a reactionary cleric but as a symbolic figure representing the unified will of the Iranian people against the Shah's regime (Afary & Anderson, 2005, pp. 110-115).
Critical Reassessment
Foucault's writings on Iran have been extensively criticized by subsequent scholars. Janet Afary and Kevin B. Anderson, in their 2005 book Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism, argue that Foucault's Eurocentric framework and his "search for political spirituality" blinded him to the gender-based violence and authoritarian tendencies of the emerging theocracy (Carrette, 2006, p. 531-533). Afary and Anderson (2005) suggest that his Iranian writings "express characteristic aspects of Foucault's worldview" and reflect a deeper problem within his intellectual project (p. 4). Similarly, contemporary postcolonial critics have argued that Foucault's enthusiasm for the revolution represented a form of "revolutionary exoticism" that projected Western intellectual desires onto a non-Western movement he did not fully understand (Zamani, 2025).
Richard Falk and "Trusting Khomeini"
In the United States, Richard Falk, then a professor of international law at Princeton University, became a notable voice of support for the new Iranian leadership. On 16 February 1979, just days after Khomeini's return from exile, The New York Times published Falk's op-ed under the headline "Trusting Khomeini" (Stephens, 2011).
Arguments in the 1979 Article
Falk wrote that "The depiction of [Khomeini] as fanatical, reactionary and the bearer of crude prejudices seems certainly and happily false." He described Khomeini's close advisers as "uniformly composed of moderate, progressive individuals" and predicted that the Ayatollah would serve primarily as a moral guide—a "spiritual pope" rather than a day-to-day political ruler. Falk concluded that Iran "may yet provide us with a desperately needed model of humane governance for a third-world country" (Stephens, 2011; "Trusting Khomeini," 2026).
Later Revisions
In subsequent decades, Falk acknowledged that his predictions had been incorrect. He stated that the New York Times headline had not been his choice and that he had underestimated the speed and ruthlessness with which clerical authority would consolidate power. Falk later described Khomeini as having a "rigid, uncompromising vision" rather than functioning as a symbolic religious figure, conceding that expectations of political pluralism proved "misplaced" ("Trusting Khomeini," 2026).
Sartre, de Beauvoir, and the French Left
Jean-Paul Sartre, the leading figure of existentialism, also supported the Iranian Revolution. He traveled to Tehran to express solidarity with the revolutionaries and used his publication Les Temps Modernes to legitimize the uprising against the Shah (Afary & Anderson, 2005, pp. 92-95).
Simone de Beauvoir, Sartre's lifelong companion and a foundational figure in second-wave feminism, initially supported the revolution's anti-imperialist objectives. According to the published collection of her feminist writings, de Beauvoir engaged in "activities in the services of causes like French divorce law reform and the rights of women in the Iranian Revolution" (Beauvoir, 2015, p. xi). However, as the regime's systematic enforcement of veiling and suppression of women's rights became evident, de Beauvoir and other feminists quickly distanced themselves from the revolution's outcome (Afary & Anderson, 2005, pp. 210-215).
Time Magazine's "Man of the Year"
In a reflection of the ambiguous Western reception of the revolution, Time magazine named Khomeini its "Man of the Year" for 1979. The magazine's profile acknowledged his controversial nature while noting the scale of his impact: "Rarely has so improbable a leader shaken the world," Time wrote (Time Magazine, 2006). The accompanying piece noted Khomeini's interest in Greek philosophy, particularly his admiration for Aristotle, complicating Western narratives of the cleric as simply "fanatical" or "reactionary" (Time Magazine, 2006).
Scholarly Analysis and Legacy
Scholars have identified several factors that contributed to Western intellectual enthusiasm for the Iranian Revolution. The Cold War context, disillusionment with the Soviet Union following the suppression of the Prague Spring, and the Vietnam War-era critique of American imperialism all created a climate in which anti-Western movements were often uncritically embraced by segments of the Western left (Afary & Anderson, 2005, pp. 18-22).
Critique of "Revolutionary Exoticism"
The phenomenon has been analyzed as an example of what some scholars call "revolutionary exoticism"—the tendency of Western intellectuals to romanticize political violence in non-Western societies as an authentic form of resistance untainted by Western materialism (Zamani, 2025). Bahar Zamani (2025), a postcolonial scholar at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, argues that Foucault's reading of the revolution, in particular, "failed to account for the deep-rooted historical and cultural complexities of Iranian resistance" and represents the "limitations of Western philosophical interpretations of non-Western uprisings" (para. 8).
Contemporary Relevance
The revival of these early Western endorsements has periodically occurred during subsequent moments of Iranian political upheaval, including the 2009 Green Movement and the Mahsa Amini protests beginning in 2022. During the 2022–2024 protests, the 1979 "Trusting Khomeini" article resurfaced online as a cautionary example of how "opposition to an authoritarian regime does not automatically produce a more open or plural system" ("Trusting Khomeini," 2026, para. 12).
See also
- Foreign relations of Iran
- Iran hostage crisis
- Iran–United States relations
- Western perceptions of Islam
References
Afary, J., & Anderson, K. B. (2005). Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the seductions of Islamism. University of Chicago Press.
Beauvoir, S. de. (2015). In M. A. Simons & M. Timmermann (Eds.), Feminist writings. University of Illinois Press.
Carrette, J. (2006). [Review of the book Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the seductions of Islamism, by J. Afary & K. B. Anderson]. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 74(2), 531–533. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfj071
Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution and the Enlightenment. University of Minnesota Press.
Jung, H. Y. (2022). Foucault's Iranian effect. KCI. Retrieved from https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002815748
Library of Congress. (n.d.). Publisher description for Foucault and the Iranian Revolution. Retrieved June 6, 2026, from https://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0617/2004024383-d.html
Stephens, B. (2011, February 14). Understanding the Muslim Brotherhood. The Wall Street Journal. Reprinted by History News Network. Retrieved from https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/bret-stephens-understanding-the-muslim-brotherhood
Time Magazine. (2006, December 16). Ayatullah Khomeini: 1979. Time Magazine. Retrieved from https://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2019712_2019694_2019594,00.html
Trusting Khomeini: Old NYT article praising former Supreme Leader surfaces amid Iran protests. (2026, January 8). The Times of India. Retrieved from https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/trusting-khomeini-old-nyt-article-praising-former-supreme-leader-surfaces-amid-iran-protests/articleshow/126434937.cms
Zamani, B. (2025). Mapping otherness: A postcolonial critique of subjectivation processes in the West and the non-West [Research project description]. Academy of Fine Arts Vienna. Retrieved from https://www.akbild.ac.at/en/research/projects/research_grantees/2025/mapping-otherness-a-postcolonial-critique-of-subjectivation-processes-in-the-west-and-the-non-west
Further reading
- Abrahamian, E. (1993). Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic. University of California Press.
- Dabashi, H. (1993). Theology of discontent: The ideological foundation of the Islamic Revolution in Iran. New York University Press.
External links
- "Trusting Khomeini: Old NYT article surfaces amid Iran protests" – The Times of India (2026)
- "Ayatullah Khomeini: 1979" – Time Magazine Person of the Year profile